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62-604: Francisque Xavier Michel (18 February 1809, Lyon – 18 May 1887, Paris ) was a French historian and philologist . He became known for his editions of French works of the Middle Ages, and the French Government, recognizing their value, sent him to England (1833) and Scotland (1837) to continue his research there. In 1837 he became a member of the Comité Historique and in 1838 chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur. In 1839 he

124-585: A basketball team, ASVEL , that plays at the Astroballe arena. Since 2000, Birdy Kids , a group of graffiti artists from the city, has decorated several random buildings and walls along the Lyon ring road. In 2012, the artist collective was chosen to represent the city as its cultural ambassadors. The population of the city (commune) of Lyon proper was 522,250 at the January 2021 census. As of 2011, 14% of its population

186-471: A humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cfa ), bordering an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb , Trewartha : Do ). The mean temperature in Lyon in the coldest month is 4.1 °C (39.4 °F) in January and in the warmest month in July is 22.6 °C (72.7 °F). Precipitation is adequate year-round, at an average of 820 mm (32.3 in), the winter months are the driest. The highest recorded temperature

248-814: A rugby league side called Lyon Villeurbanne that plays in the French rugby league championship . The club's home is the Stade Georges Lyvet in Villeurbanne. Lyon is also home to the Lyon Hockey Club , an ice hockey team that competes in France's national ice hockey league. The Patinoire Charlemagne is the seat of Club des Sports de Glace de Lyon, the club of Olympic ice dancing champions Marina Anissina and Gwendal Peizerat , and world champions Isabelle Delobel and Olivier Shoenfelder . Lyon-Villeurbanne also has

310-412: A collection of stained or clear glass in which candles are burnt on windowsills on 8 December. These stout, fluted candles can be found in shops towards the end of November. During the nights of Festival of Lights, multiple areas of the city are reserved for pedestrians only. The festival typically features light shows, performances and food vendors. Historians note the rather misinformed notions that

372-1504: A decree of the Convention Nationale . It resumed its name in 1794, after the end of the Terror . Lyon is called Liyon in Franco-Provençal .   Roman Empire (Gallia Lugdunensis), 43 BC-286   Western Roman Empire (Gallia Lugdunensis), 286-411   Kingdom of the Burgundians , 411–534   Francia , 534–843   Middle Francia , 843–855   Lotharingia , 855–879   Lower Burgundy , 879-933   Kingdom of Arles , 933–1312 [REDACTED] Kingdom of France ( Lyonnais ), 1312–1792 [REDACTED] French First Republic , 1792–1793 [REDACTED] Counter-revolutionary , 1793 [REDACTED] French First Republic , 1793–1804 [REDACTED] First French Empire , 1804–1814 [REDACTED] Kingdom of France , 1814–1815 [REDACTED] First French Empire , 1815 [REDACTED] Kingdom of France , 1815–1830 [REDACTED] Kingdom of France , 1830–1848 [REDACTED] French Second Republic , 1848–1852 [REDACTED] Second French Empire , 1852–1870 [REDACTED] French Third Republic , 1870–1940 [REDACTED] Vichy France , 1940–1944 [REDACTED] French Fourth Republic , 1944–1958 [REDACTED]   France , 1958–present According to

434-689: A major economic hub during the Renaissance . The city is recognised for its cuisine and gastronomy , as well as historical and architectural landmarks; as such, the districts of Old Lyon , the Fourvière hill , the Presqu'île and the slopes of the Croix-Rousse are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List . Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. Lyon played

496-561: A national phenomenon favoured by the French elite; a tradition which Paul Bocuse later turned into a worldwide success. The bouchon is a traditional Lyonnais restaurant that serves local fare such as sausages, duck pâté or roast pork, along with local wines. Two of France's best known wine-growing regions are located near the city: the Beaujolais region to the north and the Côtes du Rhône region to

558-470: A poached egg); and the sausage-based rosette lyonnaise and andouillette . Popular local confections include marron glacé and coussin de Lyon . Cervelle de canut (literally, "silk worker's brains") is a cheese spread/dip made of a base of fromage blanc , seasoned with chopped herbs, shallots, salt, pepper, olive oil and vinegar. More recently, the french tacos was invented in Lyon suburbs ( Vaulx-en-Velin ) (or Grenoble according to some theories), in

620-725: A population of 1,424,069 in 2021. Lyon is the prefecture of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and seat of the Departmental Council of Rhône (whose jurisdiction, however, no longer extends over the Metropolis of Lyon since 2015). The capital of the Gauls during the Roman Empire , Lyon is the seat of an archbishopric whose holder bears the title of Primate of the Gauls. Lyon became

682-596: A population of 522,250 at the Jan. 2021 census within its small municipal territory of 48 km (19 sq mi), but together with its suburbs and exurbs the Lyon metropolitan area had a population of 2,308,818 that same year, the second most populated in France . Lyon and 58 suburban municipalities have formed since 2015 the Metropolis of Lyon , a directly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of most urban issues, with

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744-462: A significant role in the history of cinema since Auguste and Louis Lumière invented the cinematograph there. The city is also known for its light festival, the Fête des lumières , which begins every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of "Capital of Lights". Economically, Lyon is a major centre for banking , chemical , pharmaceutical and biotech industries. The city contains

806-546: A significant software industry with a particular focus on video games; in recent years it has fostered a growing local start-up sector. The home of renowned universities and higher education schools, Lyon is the second-largest student city in France, with a university population of nearly 200,000 students within the Metropolis of Lyon. Lyon hosts the international headquarters of Interpol , the International Agency for Research on Cancer , as well as Euronews . According to

868-675: A simple hamlet of sailors or fishermen living on the banks of the Saône. Condate is a Gallic word meaning "confluence", from which the Confluence district gets its name. In Roman times the city was called Caput Galliæ , meaning "capital of the Gauls". As an homage to this title, the Archbishop of Lyon is still called the Primate of Gaul. During the revolutionary period, Lyon was renamed Commune-Affranchie (" Emancipated Commune ") on 12 October 1793 by

930-621: A thesis in French, entitled: Histoire des races maudites de la France et de l'Espagne . Subsequently, he published French translations of Goldsmith , Sterne , Shakespeare , and Tennyson . In 1857 he published his important book on the Basque Country: Le Pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses moeurs, sa littérature et sa musique . Michel was one of the most prolific editors of medieval French texts. His Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica lists 50 of his works, both editions of Medieval texts and original works. The following

992-476: Is La Part-Dieu urban centre, which clusters the landmark structures Tour Incity , Tour Part-Dieu , Tour Oxygène , and Tour Swiss Life , as well as the city's primary railway station, Gare de Lyon-Part-Dieu . North of this district lays the sixth arrondissement , which is home to one of Europe's largest urban parks, the Parc de la Tête d'or , as well as Lycée du Parc and Interpol 's world headquarters. Lyon has

1054-540: Is a selected bibliography. Lyon Lyon is the third-most populous city of France, at the centre of its second-largest urban area . It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône , to the northwest of the French Alps , 391 km (243 mi) southeast of Paris , 278 km (173 mi) north of Marseille , 113 km (70 mi) southwest of Geneva , Switzerland, 58 km (36 mi) northeast of Saint-Étienne . The City of Lyon had

1116-642: Is home to the P4-Inserm–ean Merieux Laboratory which conducts top-level vaccine research. The city is home to the headquarters of many large companies such as Groupe SEB , Sanofi Pasteur , Renault Trucks , Norbert Dentressangle , LCL S.A. , Descours & Cabaud , Merial , Point S , BioMérieux , Iveco Bus , Compagnie Nationale du Rhône , GL Events , April Group , Boiron , Feu Vert, Panzani , Babolat , Lyon Airports , LVL Medical, and inter-governmental agencies IARC and Interpol. The specialisation of some sectors of activities has led to

1178-494: Is located there. The district of Confluence , in the south of the historic centre, is a new pole of economical and cultural development. Tourism is an important part of the Lyon economy, with one billion euros in 2007 and 3.5 million hotel-nights in 2006 provided by non-residents. Approximately 60% of tourists visit for business, with the rest for leisure. In January 2009, Lyon ranked first in France for hostels business. The festivals most important for attracting tourists are

1240-450: Is the only metropolitan authority in France which is a territorial collectivity , on par with French communes and departments . Its metropolitan council was for the first time directly elected by universal suffrage in 2020 within 14 electoral wards, the only directly elected metropolitan council in France. The 14 electoral wards are the following (see map for location): The six wards with names starting with "Lyon" are all located within

1302-538: Is the third-largest public square in France. The broad, pedestrian-only Rue de la République leads north from Place Bellecour. The northern hill is La Croix-Rousse , known as "the hill that works" because it is traditionally home to many small silk workshops, an industry for which the city has long been renowned. The western hill is Fourvière, known as "the hill that prays" because it is the location for Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière , several convents, and Archbishop residence. The district, Vieux Lyon , also hosts

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1364-597: The Fête des lumières , the Nuits de Fourvière every summer, the Biennale d'art contemporain and the Nuits Sonores . Since the Middle Ages, the region residents have spoken several dialects of Franco-Provençal. The Lyonnais dialect was replaced by the French language as the importance of the city grew. However some "frenchified" Franco-Provençal words can also be heard in the French of

1426-561: The Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute , Lyon is considered a Beta city , as of 2018 . It ranked second in France and 40th globally in Mercer's 2019 liveability rankings . The name of the city has taken the forms Lugdon , Luon , and since the 13th century, Lyon . The Gallic Lugdun or Lugdunon that was Latinized in Roman as Lugdunum is composed of two words. The first may be

1488-812: The Huns in 437 were re-settled in eastern Gaul. In 443 the Romans established the Kingdom of the Burgundians, and Lugdunum became its capital in 461. In 843, under the Treaty of Verdun , Lyon went to the Holy Roman Emperor Lothair I . It later was made part of the Kingdom of Arles which was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1033. Lyon did not come under French control until the 14th century. Fernand Braudel remarked, "Historians of Lyon are not sufficiently aware of

1550-473: The Place Bellecour , and Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois and Joseph Fouché administered the execution of more than 2,000 people. The Convention ordered that its name be changed to "Liberated City", and a plaque was erected that proclaimed "Lyons made war on Liberty; Lyons no longer exists". A decade later, Napoleon ordered the reconstruction of all the buildings demolished during that period. The convention

1612-620: The Tour métallique (a highly visible TV tower, replicating the last stage of the Eiffel Tower ) and one of the city's railways. Fourvière, along with portions of the Presqu'île and much of La Croix-Rousse, is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . East of the Rhône from the Presqu'île is a large flat area upon which sits much of modern Lyon and contains most of the city's population. Situated in this area

1674-610: The 4th century. The traboules allowed the inhabitants to get from their homes to the Saône quickly and allowed the canuts on the Croix-Rousse hill to get from their workshops to the textile merchants at the foot of the hill. Lyon has a long and chronicled culinary arts tradition. The noted food critic Curnonsky referred to the city as "the gastronomic capital of the world", a claim repeated by later writers such as Bill Buford . Renowned 3-star Michelin chefs such as Marie Bourgeois and Eugénie Brazier developed Lyonnaise cuisine into

1736-468: The Lyonnais, who call their little boys and girls "gones" and "fenottes" for example. The historic site of Lyon was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998. In its designation, UNESCO cited the "exceptional testimony to the continuity of urban settlement over more than two millennia on a site of great commercial and strategic significance." The specific regions comprising the historic site include

1798-462: The Metropolis of Lyon's metropolitan council were chosen by indirectly elected metropolitan councilors. The current president since July 2020 was elected by new metropolitan councilors following their election by universal suffrage in March (1st round) and June (2nd round) 2020, the first direct election of a metropolitan council in France. The GDP of Lyon was 124 billion US dollars in 2019, making it

1860-510: The Parc Olympique Lyonnais, a 59,000-seat stadium located in the eastern suburb of Décines-Charpieu . OL operates a women's team, Olympique Lyonnais Féminin , which competes in and dominates Division 1 Féminine . They won fourteen consecutive top-flight championships (2007–2020), and additionally claim the four titles won by the original incarnation of FC Lyon, a women's football club that merged into OL in 2004 (the current FC Lyon

1922-449: The Roman district and Fourvière, the Renaissance district (Vieux Lyon), the silk district (slopes of Croix-Rousse), and the Presqu'île, which features architecture from the 12th century to modern times. Both Vieux Lyon and the slopes of Croix-Rousse are known for their narrow passageways (named traboules ) that pass through buildings and link streets on either side. The first examples of traboules are thought to have been built in Lyon in

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1984-449: The Saône and the Rhône, divide the arrondissements into three groups: This is a list of mayors of the commune of Lyon since the end of the 19th century. Since 2015, the commune of Lyon (48 km (19 sq mi) in land area) and 58 suburban communes have formed the Metropolis of Lyon (534 km (206 sq mi) in land area), a directly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of most urban issues. The Metropolis of Lyon

2046-507: The attack on the Bataclan in Paris, Gérard Collomb announced the cancelation of the festival because a national state of emergency had been declared. The festival was limited to the traditional lumignon candles and an installation which paid tribute to the victims of the terrorist attacks, whose first names were displayed over the buildings of the quays. Because of the continuing risk of attacks,

2108-515: The banking centre of France. During the Renaissance , the city's development was driven by the silk trade , which strengthened its ties to Italy. Italian influence on Lyon's architecture is still visible among historic buildings. In the late 1400s and 1500s Lyon was also a key centre of literary activity and book publishing, both of French writers (such as Maurice Scève , Antoine Heroet , and Louise Labé ) and of Italians in exile (such as Luigi Alamanni and Gian Giorgio Trissino ). In 1572, Lyon

2170-578: The bi-polarity between Paris and Lyon, which is a constant structure in French development...from the late Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution ". In the late 15th century, the fairs introduced by Italian merchants made Lyon the economic counting house of France. Even the Bourse (treasury), built in 1749, resembled a public bazaar where accounts were settled in the open air. When international banking moved to Genoa , then Amsterdam , Lyon remained

2232-558: The city. Now a focal point of the festival, the statue was created by the renowned sculptor Joseph-Hugues Fabisch and was sponsored by several notable Lyonnais Catholics. It was then accepted by Maurice Cardinal de Bonald in 1850. The inauguration of the statue was due to take place on September 8, 1852, the day of celebration of the Nativity of the Virgin . However, the flooding of the Saône prevented

2294-437: The commune of Lyon. The Villeurbanne ward is coterminous with the namesake commune. All other seven wards each group various suburban communes. The division of the Metropolis of Lyon in large electoral wards often grouping various communes and dividing the commune of Lyon into six wards was criticized by the suburban mayors, as it ended the rule of 'one commune, one metropolitan councilor'. The goal of this electoral division of

2356-557: The convergence of two navigable rivers made it a natural communications hub. The city became the starting point of main Roman roads in the area, and it quickly became the capital of the province, Gallia Lugdunensis . Two Emperors were born in this city: Claudius , whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic Senators, and Caracalla . Early Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under

2418-501: The creation of many main business centres: La Part-Dieu, located in the 3rd arrondissement is the second biggest business quarter after La Défense in Paris with over 1,600,000 m (17,222,256.67 sq ft) of office space and services and more than 55,000 jobs. Cité Internationale , created by the architect Renzo Piano is located in the border of the Parc de la Tête d'Or in the 6th arrondissement. The worldwide headquarters of Interpol

2480-454: The early 2000s and is now famous worldwide. Lyon is home to the football club Olympique Lyonnais (OL), whose men's team plays in Ligue 1 and has won the championship of that competition seven times, all consecutively from 2002 to 2008. OL played until December 2015 at the 43,000-seat Stade de Gerland , which also hosted matches of the 1998 FIFA World Cup . Since 2016, the team has played at

2542-458: The first of Lyon's extensive network of funicular railways began operation. During World War II , Lyon was a centre for the occupying Nazi forces, including Klaus Barbie , the infamous "Butcher of Lyon". However, the city was also a stronghold of the French Resistance , the many secret passages known as traboules , enabled people to escape Gestapo raids. On 3 September 1944, Lyon

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2604-749: The first part of the word with the Indo-European radical * lūg ('dark, black, swamp'), the basis of the toponyms Ludza in Latvia, Lusatia in Germany (from Sorbian Łužica ), and several places in the Czech Republic named Lužice; it could then also be compared to Luze in Franche-Comté and various hydronyms such as Louge . Further down, in the current Saint-Vincent district, was the Gallic village of Condate, probably

2666-636: The following Sunday. In the end the skies cleared and the people of Lyon, who had been eagerly anticipating the event, spontaneously lit up their windows, descended into the streets and lit flares to illuminate the new statue and the Chapel of Notre-Dame-de-Fourvière, later superseded by the Basilica. The people sang songs and cried " Vive Marie! " until late in the night. This celebration was then repeated from year to year. Tradition now mandates that many families in Lyon keep, often along with their Christmas decorations,

2728-534: The gods. The city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum (and occasionally Lugudunum ). The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as "Desired Mountain" is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary . In contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lug[o]dunon, after the Celtic god Lugus (cognate with Old Irish Lugh , Modern Irish Lú ), and dúnon (hill-fort). The Romans recognised that Lugdunum's strategic location at

2790-514: The historian Dio Cassius , in 43 BC, the Roman Senate ordered the creation of a settlement for Roman refugees of war with the Allobroges . These refugees had been expelled from Vienne and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers. The foundation was built on Fourvière hill and officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia , a name invoking prosperity and the blessing of

2852-453: The metropolis was to focus metropolitan elections more on metropolitan issues than parochial communal issues, and ensure the 'one person, one vote' rule be respected, by creating electoral wards of more homogeneous population sizes. Opponents said it diluted the voice of the small suburban communes, which are now part of large electoral wards and do not each possess a representative in the metropolitan council anymore. The two first presidents of

2914-512: The name of the Celtic god Lug (in charge of order and law), or the derived word lugon , meaning "crow" (the crow being the messenger of Lug), but might also be another word lug , meaning "light". The second is dunos ('fortress', 'hill'). The name thus may designate the hill of Fourvière , on which the ancient city of Lyon is founded, but could mean "hill of the god Lug", "hill of the crows" or "shining hill". Alternatively Julius Pokorny associates

2976-413: The people of Lyon have concerning the celebration's origins: confusion over the thanks given to Mary, as well as the dates involved, leads people to think the celebration commemorates the establishment of the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière or a wish granted after a plague supposedly struck in the 19th century. The festival draws 3 to 4 million people each year. On 19 November 2015, six days after

3038-425: The reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimius Severus . Local saints from this period include Blandina , Pothinus , and Epipodius , among others. The Greek Irenaeus was the second bishop of Lyon during the latter part of the second century. To this day, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as " Primat des Gaules ". Burgundians fleeing the destruction of Worms by

3100-833: The second richest city in France after Paris. Lyon and its region Rhône-Alpes represent one of the most important economies in Europe and, according to Loughborough University, can be compared to Philadelphia, Mumbai or Athens with regard to its international position. The city of Lyon is working in partnership to more easily enable the establishment of new headquarters in the territory (ADERLY, Chambre du commerce et d'industrie , Grand Lyon ...). High-tech industries such as biotechnology, software development, video game ( Arkane Studios , Ivory Tower , Eden Games , EA France , Bandai Namco Entertainment Europe), and internet services are also growing. Other important sectors include medical research and technology, non-profit institutions, and universities. Lyon

3162-441: The south. Another Lyon tradition is a type of brunch food called "mâchons", made of local charcuterie and usually accompanied by Beaujolais red wine. Mâchons were the customary meal of the canuts, the city's silk workers, who ate a late-morning meal after they finished their shifts in the factories. Other traditional local dishes include coq au vin ; quenelle ; gras double ; salade lyonnaise (lettuce with bacon, croûtons and

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3224-476: The statue from being ready. The archbishop, with the agreement of a committee of lay people, therefore chose to move the date back to the 8 December. By 1852 in Lyon, December 8 had already been a celebration for the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. Leading up to the inauguration, everything was in place for the festivities: The statue was lit up with flares, fireworks were readied for launching from

3286-584: The third arrondissement (which originally covered the whole of the Left Bank of the Rhône) was split three times, creating a new arrondissement in each case. Then, in 1963, the commune of Saint-Rambert-l'Île-Barbe was annexed to Lyon's fifth arrondissement. A year later, in 1964, the fifth was split to create Lyon's 9th – and, to date, final – arrondissement. Within each arrondissement, the recognisable quartiers or neighbourhoods are: Geographically, Lyon's two main rivers,

3348-428: The top of Fourvière Hill and marching bands were set to play in the streets. The prominent Catholics of the time suggested lighting up the façades of their homes as was traditionally done for major events such as royal processions and military victories. However, on the morning of the big day, a storm struck Lyon. The master of ceremonies hastily decided to cancel everything and to push back the celebrations once more to

3410-532: The town was spared. Ever since, a solemn procession makes its way to the Basilica of Fourvière on 8 December (the feast of the Immaculate Conception ) to light candles and give offerings in the name of Mary. In part, the event thus commemorates the day Lyon was consecrated to the Virgin Mary. In 1852, it became a popular festival when a statue of the Virgin Mary was erected next to the Basilica, overlooking

3472-526: Was 40.5 °C (104.9 °F) on 13 August 2003 while the lowest recorded temperature was −24.6 °C (−12.3 °F) on 22 December 1938. Like Paris and Marseille , the commune (municipality) of Lyon is divided into a number of municipal arrondissements , each of which is identified by a number and has its own council and town hall. Five arrondissements were originally created in 1852, when three neighbouring communes (La Croix-Rousse, La Guillotière, and Vaise) were annexed by Lyon. Between 1867 and 1959,

3534-713: Was a scene of mass violence by Catholics against Protestant Huguenots in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre . Two centuries later, Lyon was again convulsed by violence during the French Revolution , when the citizenry rose up against the National Convention and supported the Girondins . The city was besieged by Revolutionary armies for over two months before it surrendered in October 1793. Many buildings were destroyed, especially around

3596-423: Was appointed professor of foreign literature in the Faculté des lettres at the University of Bordeaux . Between 1834 and 1842 he published editions of many works written between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries in French, English, and Saxon , including the Roman de la rose and the Chanson de Roland . He got his licence in literature in 1842, and his doctorat in 1846, with a thesis in Latin on Virgil and

3658-465: Was born outside Metropolitan France. The city of Lyon and 58 suburban municipalities have formed since 2015 the Metropolis of Lyon, a directly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of most urban issues, with a population of 1,424,069 in 2021. Festival of Lights (Lyon) The origins of the festival date to 1643 when Lyon was struck by plague . On September 8, 1643, the municipal councillors ( échevins ) promised to pay tribute to Mary if

3720-403: Was founded in 2009). The OL women have also won the UEFA Women's Champions League eight times, including in five consecutive editions from 2016 to 2020. Lyon hosted the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup semi-finals as well as the Final on 7 July at Stade de Lyon. Lyon has a rugby union team, Lyon OU , in the Top 14 , which moved into Stade de Gerland full-time in 2017–18. In addition, Lyon has

3782-405: Was liberated by the 1st Free French Division and the Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur . The city is now home to a Resistance museum. The Rhône and Saône converge to the south of the historic city centre, forming a peninsula – the " Presqu'île " – bounded by two large hills to the west and north and a large plain eastward. Place Bellecour is located on the Presqu'île between the two rivers and

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3844-452: Was not the only target within Lyon during the French Revolution. After the Convention faded into history, the French Directory appeared and days after the 4 September 1797 Coup of 18 Fructidor , a Directory's commissioner was assassinated in Lyon. The city became an important industrial town in the 19th century. In 1831 and 1834, the canuts (silk workers) of Lyon staged two major uprisings for better working conditions and pay. In 1862,

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