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44-406: By chance this particular fresco, having been covered by a thick crust of stalactites , escaped the notice of the early explorers of the catacombs. In 1893, Jesuit art historian Joseph Wilpert, one of a band of young scholars who looked upon De Rossi as their master, arrived at the conclusion that the roof and arches of this chapel were decorated with frescoes. Chemical reagents were used to remove

88-415: A drip stalagmite that forms below as material is carried through the tubular stalactite and piles up on the floor beneath. Sometimes the tubular form collapses near the distal end, most likely when the pressure of escaping gases decreased and still-molten portions of the stalactites deflated and cooled. Often these tubular stalactites acquire a twisted, vermiform appearance as bits of lava crystallize and force

132-743: A family. In 2004-2005, Denzey Lewis accepted a research associate position at Harvard Divinity School in their Women Studies in Religion Program, followed by more teaching at Harvard University. She moved to Brown University in 2007. During her time at Brown, Denzey Lewis published three books: The Bone Gatherers (Boston: Beacon, 2007), which was shortlisted for best first book in Religion by the American Academy of Religion; Cosmology and Fate in Gnosticism and Graeco-Roman Antiquity (Boston: Brill, 2013); and

176-441: A rounded or cone-shaped stalagmite . Unlike stalactites, stalagmites never start out as hollow "soda straws". Given enough time, these formations can meet and fuse to create a speleothem of calcium carbonate known as a pillar, column, or stalagnate. Another type of stalactite is formed in lava tubes while molten and fluid lava is still active inside. The mechanism of formation is the deposition of molten dripping material on

220-406: A stalactite. They are normally a few centimeters long and with a diameter of approximately 4 to 5 mm (0.16 to 0.20 inches). The growth rate of stalactites is significantly influenced by supply continuity of Ca saturated solution and the drip rate. A straw shaped stalactite which has formed under a concrete structure can grow as much as 2 mm per day in length, when the drip rate

264-509: A very narrow (≈4 to 5 mm diameter), hollow tube commonly known as a " soda straw " stalactite. Soda straws can grow quite long, but are very fragile. If they become plugged by debris, water begins flowing over the outside, depositing more calcite and creating the more familiar cone-shaped stalactite. Stalactite formation generally begins over a large area, with multiple paths for the mineral rich water to flow. As minerals are dissolved in one channel slightly more than other competing channels,

308-436: Is a mineral formation that hangs from the ceiling of caves , hot springs , or man-made structures such as bridges and mines. Any material that is soluble and that can be deposited as a colloid , or is in suspension , or is capable of being melted , may form a stalactite. Stalactites may be composed of lava , minerals , mud , peat , pitch , sand , sinter , and amberat (crystallized urine of pack rats ). A stalactite

352-421: Is a slow leak and where there are calcium, magnesium or other ions in the water supply, although they form much more rapidly there than in the natural cave environment. These secondary deposits, such as stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone and others, which are derived from the lime, mortar or other calcareous material in concrete , outside of the "cave" environment, can not be classified as " speleothems " due to

396-405: Is added to the mix, the calcium oxide in the cement reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ). The chemical formula for this is: Over time, any rainwater that penetrates cracks in set (hard) concrete will carry any free calcium hydroxide in solution to the edge of the concrete. Stalactites can form when the solution emerges on the underside of the concrete structure where it

440-528: Is approximately 11 minutes between drops. Changes in leachate solution pH can facilitate additional chemical reactions, which may also influence calthemite stalactite growth rates. The White Chamber in the Jeita Grotto 's upper cavern in Lebanon contains an 8.2 m (27 ft) limestone stalactite which is accessible to visitors and is claimed to be the longest stalactite in the world. Another such claim

484-570: Is closely associated with the observance of Sunday. (Cf. also the disciples at Emmaus on Easter Day --Luke 24:30-35, and Acts, 27:35). Similar prominence is given to this conception in other sub-Apostolic writings, notably in the Didache or "Teaching of the Apostles" (xiv, I), where it is associated with the observance of the Sunday as well as with the explicit mention of Sacrifice and with confession. "And on

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528-514: Is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? And the bread, which we break, is it not the partaking of the body of the Lord?" So again in Acts , 2:42, "And they were persevering in the doctrine of the apostles and in the communication of the breaking of bread, and in prayers" (cf. Acts, 2:46). And particularly Acts, 2:7, "And on the first day of the week, when we were assembled to break bread", where this practice

572-641: Is made for a 20 m (66 ft) limestone stalactite that hangs in the Chamber of Rarities in the Gruta Rei do Mato ( Sete Lagoas , Minas Gerais , Brazil). However, cavers have often encountered longer stalactites during their explorations. One of the longest stalactites viewable by the general public is in Pol an Ionain (Doolin Cave), County Clare , Ireland, in a karst region known as The Burren ; what makes it more impressive

616-449: Is not necessarily a speleothem , though speleothems are the most common form of stalactite because of the abundance of limestone caves. The corresponding formation on the floor of the cave is known as a stalagmite . The most common stalactites are speleothems , which occur in limestone caves. They form through deposition of calcium carbonate and other minerals, which is precipitated from mineralized water solutions . Limestone

660-416: Is reversed and particles of calcium carbonate are deposited. The reversed reaction is: An average growth rate is 0.13 mm (0.0051 inches) a year. The quickest growing stalactites are those formed by a constant supply of slow dripping water rich in calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which can grow at 3 mm (0.12 inches) per year. The drip rate must be slow enough to allow

704-400: Is suspended in the air, for example, on a ceiling or a beam. When the solution comes into contact with air on the underside of the concrete structure, another chemical reaction takes place. The solution reacts with carbon dioxide in the air and precipitates calcium carbonate . When this solution drops down it leaves behind particles of calcium carbonate and over time these form into

748-423: Is the chief form of calcium carbonate rock which is dissolved by water that contains carbon dioxide , forming a calcium bicarbonate solution in caverns. The chemical formula for this reaction is: This solution travels through the rock until it reaches an edge and if this is on the roof of a cave it will drip down. When the solution comes into contact with air the chemical reaction that created it

792-534: Is the fact that the stalactite is held on by a section of calcite less than 0.3 m (3.2 sq ft). Stalactites are first mentioned (though not by name) by the Roman natural historian Pliny in a text which also mentions stalagmites and columns and refers to their formation by the dripping of water. The term "stalactite" was coined in the 17th century by the Danish Physician Ole Worm , who coined

836-406: Is thrown back, he has a small loaf or cake in his hands, and his arms stretched out in front of him show that he is breaking it. Upon the table immediately before him is a two-handled cup. Further along the table there are two large plates, one containing two fishes, the other five loaves. At each extremity of the picture upon either side are baskets filled with loaves—four baskets at one end, three at

880-551: The Fractio Panis fresco is veiled, which is not the case with the female figures represented in those other banqueting scenes found in the catacombs and usually interpreted as symbolic of the joys of heaven. A number of scholars, including Karen Jo Torjesen, Joan Morris, Dorothy Irvin, and Nicola Denzey Lewis , argue that most or all of the figures depicted are women, citing their hairstyles and clothing. They sometimes interpret this as archaeological evidence that women presided over

924-622: The CO 2 to degas from the solution into the cave atmosphere, resulting in deposition of CaCO 3 on the stalactite. Too fast a drip rate and the solution, still carrying most of the CaCO 3 , falls to the cave floor where degassing occurs and CaCO 3 is deposited as a stalagmite. All limestone stalactites begin with a single mineral-laden drop of water. When the drop falls, it deposits the thinnest ring of calcite. Each subsequent drop that forms and falls deposits another calcite ring. Eventually, these rings form

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968-559: The Eucharist in the early Church. The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia argues that some parts of the fresco should be understood as symbolic rather than realistic, such as the seated position of the person breaking the bread. A further indication of the Eucharistic significance of the fresco is afforded by the fact that in the fresco next to it in the same chamber is depicted the Binding of Isaac . On

1012-408: The Lord's day come together and break bread and give thanks, having first confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure." Further, in ch. xi of the same early treatise the consecrated Host is clearly designated by the term klasma , i.e. "broken bread". It seems natural then that, in the earliest form of the liturgy, the breaking of the bread should have been regarded as the climax of

1056-613: The Margo L. Goldsmith Chair in Women's Studies in Religion. Lewis completed her Bachelor of Arts in religious studies at the University of Toronto . After receiving a 5-year graduate fellowship from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (1991-1996), she went on to earn both a Master's degree and a Doctorate from Princeton University , focusing on early Christianity. At Princeton, she received a dual training in

1100-848: The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) (2016-2017). She has received the Norman E. Wagner Prize for Teaching and Technology from the Canadian Society of Biblical Studies. Lewis has appeared on a number of television and radio programs that have aired on the BBC, Channel 4 (UK), CNN, the National Geographic Channel, and the History Channel. Her first appearance was in a National Geographic series, “When Rome Ruled”. She consulted on, and

1144-551: The Teaching and Learning Center. Lewis has received fellowships and honors from, among others, Yale University’s Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition; the American Academy of Religion; and Harvard Divinity School. In 2007, she was awarded a Derek Bok Award for Teaching Excellence at Harvard University. She received two year-long fellowships from The American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) (2015-2016) and

1188-782: The board of the International Catacomb Society, the journals Gnosis , the Journal of Early Christian Studies , and the Zeitschrift für Antikes und Christentums . She has served in various positions in the Society for Biblical Literature, including many years developing and writing for the SBL’s Bible Odyssey project. She is a director of the Virtual Teaching and Learning Center for the American Academy of Religion and editor of

1232-512: The ceilings of caves, however with lava stalactites formation happens very quickly in only a matter of hours, days, or weeks, whereas limestone stalactites may take up to thousands of years. A key difference with lava stalactites is that once the lava has ceased flowing, so too will the stalactites cease to grow. This means that if the stalactite were to be broken it would never grow back. The generic term lavacicle has been applied to lava stalactites and stalagmites indiscriminately and evolved from

1276-468: The crust which covered the surface, and by the patient care of Wilpert this delicate operation was attended with complete success. De Rossi described it as "the pearl of Catacomb discoveries". Wilpert published a monograph in 1895 giving a full account of this discovery under the title Fractio Panis, die alteste Darstellung der eucharistischen Opfers (Freiburg in Breisgau). This was translated into French

1320-415: The definition of the term. The term " calthemite " is used to encompass these secondary deposits which mimic the shapes and forms of speleothems outside the cave environment. The way stalactites form on concrete is due to different chemistry than those that form naturally in limestone caves and is due to the presence of calcium oxide in cement. Concrete is made from aggregate, sand and cement. When water

1364-438: The dominant channel begins to draw more and more of the available water, which speeds its growth, ultimately resulting in all other channels being choked off. This is one reason why formations tend to have minimum distances from one another. The larger the formation, the greater the interformation distance. The same water drops that fall from the tip of a stalactite deposit more calcite on the floor below, eventually resulting in

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1408-783: The first textbook/introductory handbook to Nag Hammadi texts, Introduction to “Gnosticism”: Ancient Voices, Christian Worlds (New York: Oxford University Press), which was subsequently translated into Italian. In 2017, Lewis was appointed to the Margo L. Goldsmith Chair in Women’s Studies in Religion at Claremont Graduate University, where she directs the program in Women and Gender Studies in Religion. She served as department chair from 2018 to 2020. Her numerous, other, shorter published studies cover various topics, including ancient women, Christian movements previously deemed “Gnosticism,” and life and death in Roman antiquity.  Denzey Lewis serves on

1452-534: The fish and the anagram ichthys , both the Inscription of Abercius of the close of the 2nd century and that of Autun a little later, as well as the large number of allusions in early Christian literature, make it clear that Christ was indicated by this symbol. Moreover, the Abercius inscription clearly conveys that this "great fish" was to be the permanent food of the soul. The one unambiguously female guest depicted in

1496-399: The flow in different directions. These tubular lava helictites may also be influenced by air currents through a tube and point downwind. A common stalactite found seasonally or year round in many caves is the ice stalactite, commonly referred to as icicles , especially on the surface. Water seepage from the surface will penetrate into a cave and if temperatures are below freezing ,

1540-574: The history of late antiquity with Peter Brown , and in gnosticism with Elaine Pagels . At Princeton, she also participated in the Program in the Ancient World, working to develop skills in history, classics, religion, and art and archaeology. Lewis began her teaching career at Bowdoin College , before moving to Skidmore College in 1998. After four years at Skidmore, she resigned from her position to raise

1584-413: The lava tube, coating and recoating the stalactite with more material. They can vary from a few millimeters to over a meter in length. As lava flows through a tube, material will be splashed up on the ceiling and ooze back down, hardening into a stalactite. This type of formation results in an irregularly-shaped stalactite, looking somewhat like stretched taffy . Often they may be of a different color than

1628-473: The next year. It contains a collection of very carefully executed photogravures of the frescoes in the Capella Greca . The scene represented is a picture of seven persons at a table, six men and a woman. It seems clear that six of these are reclining as the ancients reclined at their meals. But the seventh personage, a bearded and impressive figure, sits somewhat apart at the extremity of the table. His head

1672-507: The original lava that formed the cave. When the roof of a lava tube is cooling, a skin forms that traps semi-molten material inside. Trapped gases expansion forces lava to extrude out through small openings that result in hollow, tubular stalactites analogous to the soda straws formed as depositional speleothems in solution caves. The longest known is almost 2 meters in length. These are common in Hawaiian lava tubes and are often associated with

1716-751: The other side is a representation of Daniel in the lions' den, to which Wilpert also attaches a Eucharistic significance on account of the supernatural feeding of Daniel through the intervention of the prophet Habakkuk (Daniel, 14:36). [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Fractio Panis ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Stalactite A stalactite ( UK : / ˈ s t æ l ə k ˌ t aɪ t / , US : / s t ə ˈ l æ k t aɪ t / ; from Ancient Greek σταλακτός ( stalaktós )  'dripping', from σταλάσσειν ( stalássein )  'to drip')

1760-512: The other. The phrase "fractio panis" (Greek: klasis tou artou ) and its variants is not found in pagan literature but recurs frequently in early Christian literature, indicating particular Christian usage; not only is the "blessing and breaking" of the bread mentioned in each of the four accounts of the Last Supper, but repeatedly also in the other Apostolic writings. For example, in 1 Corinthians , 10:16, "The cup of benediction, which we bless,

1804-416: The ritual employed. This Eucharistic significance of the picture is borne out by all the accessories. The loaves and the fishes upon the table point directly to the feeding of the multitude twice performed by Jesus Christ . The association of this miracle with the Eucharist is familiar, not only in other archaeological monuments, but also in early Christian literature. Regarding the symbolic significance of

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1848-629: The water will form stalactites. They can also be formed by the freezing of water vapor . Similar to lava stalactites, ice stalactites form very quickly within hours or days. Unlike lava stalactites however, they may grow back as long as water and temperatures are suitable. Ice stalactites can also form under sea ice when saline water is introduced to ocean water. These specific stalactites are referred to as brinicles . Ice stalactites may also form corresponding stalagmites below them and given time may grow together to form an ice column. Stalactites can also form on concrete , and on plumbing where there

1892-559: The word from the Greek word σταλακτός (stalaktos, "dripping") and the Greek suffix -ίτης (-ites, connected with or belonging to). Nicola Denzey Lewis Nicola Denzey Lewis (born 1966 in Toronto , Ontario ) is a Canadian academic of lived religion , early Christians , material culture of late antique Roman Empire , and women studies . She is a professor at Claremont Graduate University as

1936-409: The word icicle. Like limestone stalactites, they can leave lava drips onto the floor that turn into lava stalagmites and may eventually fuse with the corresponding stalactite to form a column. The shark tooth stalactite is broad and tapering in appearance. It may begin as a small driblet of lava from a semi-solid ceiling, but then grows by accreting layers as successive flows of lava rise and fall in

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