A fire lookout (sometimes also called a fire watcher ) is a person assigned the duty to look for fire from atop a building known as a fire lookout tower . These towers are used in remote areas, normally on mountain tops with high elevation and a good view of the surrounding terrain , to spot smoke caused by a wildfire .
128-503: The 1992 Fountain Fire was a large and destructive wildfire in Shasta County , California. The fire ignited on August 20 in an act of probable but unattributed arson, and was quickly driven northeast by strong winds. It outpaced firefighters for two days, exhibiting extreme behavior such as long-range spot fires , crown fire runs, and pyrocumulonimbus clouds with dry lightning . The fire
256-564: A defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by
384-657: A "beleaguered firefighter", and the words "All this for an IOU?" On August 23 the Fountain Fire was reported to be short of 105 wildland firefighters (equivalent to seven handcrews ) primarily because of resources taken up by the Old Gulch Fire in Calaveras County. There were also fewer replacements in part because the budget stalemate meant that fire departments throughout the state were in some cases unwilling to send their idle units, worried about potential budget cuts and
512-465: A 15 mile radius. Additionally, Sensaio Tech , based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels. Satellite and aerial monitoring through
640-470: A 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth. Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases evapotranspiration . This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When
768-466: A Shasta-Trinity National Forest spokesperson as "steeper than a cow's face." Big Bend, Moose Camp, and Hillcrest alone remained under mandatory evacuation orders. Firefighter reported re-burning and flare-ups of activity near unburned islands (ranging from 30–400 acres (12–162 ha)) of vegetation and structures within the fire. By midday on August 26 the fire was 75 percent contained. On August 27 it remained hot and dry but with calm winds. On August 28,
896-663: A benefit for people. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake. Wildfires can be classified by cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire severity results from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create substantial fuels, followed by drought and heat, often precede severe wildfires. These cycles have been intensified by climate change . Wildfires are
1024-447: A broken leg. One firefighter was forced to deploy their fire shelter when overcome by flames while trying to protect a house. There were also substantial livestock losses, with entire herds of swine and cattle killed. The fire caused Highway 299 to close from Oak Run in the west to Four Corners in the east, and Highway 89 to close from Highway 44 in the south to Interstate 5 in the north. Highway 299 reopened on August 29, following
1152-485: A common type of disaster in some regions, including Siberia (Russia), California (United States), British Columbia (Canada), and Australia . Areas with Mediterranean climates or in the taiga biome are particularly susceptible. Wildfires can severely impact humans and their settlements. Effects include for example the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, as well as destruction of property (especially in wildland–urban interfaces ), and economic losses. There
1280-450: A fire lookout tower in the middle of a wilderness area takes a hardy type of person, one who can work with no supervision, and is able to survive without any other human interaction. Some towers are accessible by automobile, but others are so remote a lookout must hike in, or be lifted in by helicopter . In many locations, even modern fire lookout towers do not have electricity or running water. Most fire lookout jobs are seasonal through
1408-610: A fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because savanna has been converted to cropland , so there are fewer trees to burn. Climate variability including heat waves , droughts , and El Niño , and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase
SECTION 10
#17328551045101536-660: A high severity, and killed much of the vegetation within its footprint. Wildfire A wildfire , forest fire , or a bushfire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation . Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire ( in Australia ), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are different from controlled or prescribed burning , which are carried out to provide
1664-469: A historic drinking fountain along Highway 299 (which gave the incident its name). They could not see the actual ignition point of the growing fire, which was confirmed by the Shasta Bear Mountain lookout's cross-check to be about two miles (3.2 km) from the fountain in dry grass off of Buzzard Roost Road, just west of Phillips Road and south of Highway 299. When a resident of Phillips Road spotted
1792-492: A local emergency on August 21, the day after the fire had begun and burned through Round Mountain. On the same day, Governor Wilson declared a state of emergency in Shasta County. On August 22, U.S. House Representative Wally Herger toured the disaster area and called for a federal disaster declaration from President George H. W. Bush . President Bush then authorized federal relief for Shasta County on August 29. Shasta County and
1920-530: A new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. In 2014, an international campaign
2048-612: A new wildfire, the Barker Fire, began in Trinity County and further stretched firefighting resources in Northern California. The Fountain Fire's northeastern push developed into an intense crown fire , with flame lengths of up to 300 feet (91 m) that kept ground crews from safely engaging. The wind helped embers ignite spot fires at least one mile (1.6 km) ahead of the main fire. The pyrocumulonimbus plume generated by
2176-415: A number expected to rise to 30,000 by 2050. The economic impact is also significant, with projected costs reaching $ 240 billion annually by 2050, surpassing other climate-related damages. Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of
2304-545: A policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and
2432-404: A possible fire is spotted, "Smoke Reports", or "Lookout Shots" are relayed to the local Emergency Communications Center (ECC), often by radio or phone. A fire lookout can use a device known as an Osborne Fire Finder to obtain the radial in degrees off the tower, and the estimated distance from the tower to the fire. Part of the lookout's duties include taking weather readings and reporting
2560-503: A possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers . A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation,
2688-531: A rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometres per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour (14 mph) in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through
SECTION 20
#17328551045102816-681: A remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. Public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as
2944-567: A report analyzing Cal Fire's initial mobilization for the Fountain Fire. The report was favorable, though it noted that during the fire's early stages radio frequencies were overloaded and firefighters generally lacked good information on which homes were or were not defensible. In March 1993, about 400 people attended a hearing on the fire held in Redding by the California State Senate Committee for Natural Resources and Wildlife. In
3072-425: A series of audits of the agency's spending on wildfires, prompted by that year's expensive fire season. The first audit focused on the Fountain Fire. Some news articles seized on purchases made during the fire deemed extravagant, such as an order for more than 1,800 pounds (820 kg) of honey, as well as large bills for coffee, hotel rooms for firefighters, paperwork, and other goods and services. More systematically,
3200-569: A strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as
3328-779: A susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss
3456-430: A tour of the fire's footprint via helicopter. Before the Fountain Fire the predominant forest cover type in the area was Sierra Nevada mixed conifer, with Pacific Ponderosa pine cover at lower elevations. Tree species included ponderosa pine, sugar pine, Douglas fir, white fir , incense cedar, and California black oak , while the understory was dominated by manzanita and Ceanothus species. The fire largely burned at
3584-455: A tractor he was operating. At least two other workers were seriously injured during Fountain Fire salvage logging, both of them struck in the head by trees that snapped back after being pinned down by other falling trees. There were also at least 11 firefighter injuries during the fire itself. One firefighter was struck by a falling branch, and another broke an ankle. At least three state prison inmates were also injured, including one who suffered
3712-448: Is also the potential for contamination of water and soil. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with a doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through climate change (e.g. more intense heat waves and droughts ), land-use change , and wildfire suppression . The carbon released from wildfires can add to carbon dioxide concentrations in
3840-721: Is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per year. Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of
3968-473: Is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. Global Forest Watch provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. In 2015
Fountain Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
4096-416: Is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, often as a consequence of droughts , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable. A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches,
4224-680: The 2023 Canadian wildfires false claims of arson gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain , New South Wales; Centralia , Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China . They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. (Fire) Good luck deleting this, Frost! (Fire) The spread of wildfires varies based on
4352-957: The Amazon rainforest . The fires in the latter were caused mainly by illegal logging . The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. As of August 2020, the wildfires in that year were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to climate change , deforestation and agricultural burning. The Amazon rainforest 's existence is threatened by fires. Record-breaking wildfires in 2021 occurred in Turkey , Greece and Russia , thought to be linked to climate change. The carbon released from wildfires can add to greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate models do not yet fully reflect this feedback . Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into
4480-557: The European Union . In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga tonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons ) of CO 2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. In June and July 2019, fires in
4608-530: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) agreed to drop all fees for fire victims seeking to rebuild their homes, and FEMA funded an additional building inspector for rebuilding efforts in the fire area for 18 months. Democratic Party U.S. Senate candidate Dianne Feinstein visited Redding on September 1 for her campaign, receiving a briefing at the incident command post in Anderson and
4736-472: The Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS). Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using artificial intelligence for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires. Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations
4864-500: The Paris climate agreement . Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019,
4992-545: The Red Cross shelter that had been established there was also forced to move. The fire moved so quickly and fiercely that firefighters did not expect to be able to stop it short of where the conifer forests gave way to old lava beds east of Burney. By dusk, the fire had advanced all the way to Hatchet Mountain and Hatchet Mountain Pass, damaging radio equipment on the mountain's summit. Flames were visible from Burney. By 10:00 p.m.,
5120-501: The Yellowstone fires of 1988 Desolation Angels , a semi-autobiographical novel by Jack Kerouac published in 1965, the opening section of which is taken almost directly from the journal Kerouac kept when he was a fire lookout on Desolation Peak in the North Cascade mountains of Washington state. The video game Fears Of Fathom Ironbark Lookout follows a story of a fire lookout at the fictional state park known as ironbark (based on
5248-410: The dry season . In middle latitudes , the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines , and arson . Arson may account for over 20% of human caused fires. However, in the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season "an independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires." In
Fountain Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-495: The "pattern of charring on cow patties". They used satellite data to confirm that there had been no recent lightning strikes nearby, and traffic patterns to rule out a sparks from a vehicle's exhaust or a hot catalytic converter. No downed power lines were found at the site; nor indeed was any ignition source found at the fire's origin location, including matches, cigarette butts, or a "trace of exhaust carbon from machinery". These methods led investigators to announce on August 25 that
5504-496: The 1920s and 1930s. Four of these six years ranked in the driest 10 percent of years by runoff . The stress on forests led to widespread bark beetle infestations. Several weeks of high temperatures—equal to or exceeding 100 °F (38 °C) for 22 days—also preceded the fire in Shasta County. There were also fewer firefighting personnel and equipment available than normal due to an already-active fire season in California; during
5632-444: The 20 most destructive California wildfires. At a suppression cost of more than $ 22 million (~$ 43 million in 2023), it was also for a time the most expensive fire to contain in state history. At the time, the Fountain Fire was recognized not just as a major disaster, but also as a 'fire of the future'. The devastation the fire left as it moved through private timberlands interspersed with rural communities made it emblematic of
5760-459: The Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO 2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with
5888-475: The Democratic California state legislature and Republican governor Pete Wilson meant that the state was without a budget between July 1 and September 3 in 1992, and consequently forced to pay many state employees or contractors in official IOUs during that period. These included Cal Fire firefighters on the Fountain Fire, many of whom bought and wore T-shirts that displayed the names of major fires,
6016-567: The Fountain Fire burned the Cedar Creek PG&;E substation in Round Mountain. More than 150,000 feet (46,000 m) of telephone cable operated by Citizens Utilities was burned. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) was forced to replace 45,000 feet (14,000 m) feet of electrical distribution lines, repair 150 miles (240 km) of transmission lines, and replace approximately 300 wooden power line poles that had burned. At
6144-465: The Fountain Fire from crossing the Pit River was a high priority, as officials cited the steepness of the terrain beyond it, dense fuels, and the high resource values (such as old-growth forests and endangered spotted owl habitat) that would be at risk if it crossed. In that case, officials feared a "whole new ball game" with "uncontrollable" fire conditions. Crews were aided on that side by strong winds from
6272-546: The Fountain Fire reached at least 25,000 feet (7,600 m) in altitude, as detected by weather radars in Medford, Oregon , and generated numerous lightning strikes. The 50–70-mile-per-hour (80–113 km/h) jet stream blowing out of the west created a chimney effect when it met the billowing smoke plume, ventilating the fire and increasing fire behavior. A Forest Service meteorologist speculated that, based on witness reports and debris, intense fire-generated vortices developed in
6400-450: The Fountain Fire was declared 100 percent contained, having burned a total area just shy of 64,000 acres (26,000 ha). Firefighters continued to monitor 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) of unburned vegetation within the perimeter that risked reigniting, primarily on Hatchet Mountain and Lookout Mountain. The fire was officially declared controlled on November 1. Other fire suppression operations continued until mid-November. A deadlock between
6528-532: The Fountain Fire's first day four thousand firefighters were deployed on the destructive Old Gulch Fire in Calaveras County . Lastly, a critical fire weather pattern developed in Northern California. The influence of an upper-level trough moving onshore in the Pacific Northwest and a strong upper-level jet situated over Northern California created strong flow out of the southwest and Foehn winds on
SECTION 50
#17328551045106656-414: The Fountain Fire's massive plume to the east) from pushing the flames across the road. This happened shortly after noon, and the fire then pressed towards Montgomery Creek. The fire entered the center of the community along Highway 299 by 3:00 p.m. Multiple homes were destroyed, but firefighters protected the local school, post office, and other major structures with assistance from aircraft. Meanwhile,
6784-414: The Fountain Fire. A National Weather Service meteorologist in Redding assigned to the incident concurred, noting that investigators found pine trees two to three feet (0.61 to 0.91 m) in diameter snapped in half by possible "fire tornadoes". Such vortices have been recorded in other Northern California wildfires, including the 2014 Eiler Fire near Hat Creek and the 2018 Carr Fire on the outskirts of
6912-653: The Fountain Fire—but the plants survived. A biologist for the California Department of Fish and Game predicted potential major impacts on local fish populations. In a report for the Forest Foundation that advocated for thinning forests and post-fire replanting, retired forestry professor Thomas Bonnicksen used a Forest Carbons and Emissions Model (FCEM) to calculate that more than 13 million tons of carbon dioxide were released through combustion and decay in
7040-489: The Fountain Fire—equivalent to more than 17 percent of annual passenger vehicle emissions in California in 2005. However, the report received pushback: it was never peer-reviewed, and California Air Resources Board and Forest Service officials critiqued it as probably overestimating the amount of emissions. Other critics noted Bonnicksen's alignment with the timber industry. Shasta County Sheriff Jim Pope declared
7168-498: The United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at
7296-714: The Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be partially attributable to human-induced climate change . In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), Australia suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated 117 million hectares (290 million acres ; 1,170,000 square kilometres ; 450,000 square miles ). In Australia,
7424-487: The air attack fleet as "larger than the Peruvian Air Force." When suppression was complete the Fountain Fire had become the then-most expensive wildfire to contain in recorded California history, at a total cost of more than $ 22 million (equivalent to about $ 43 million in 2023). Many residents who lost their homes in the Fountain Fire afterwards expressed criticisms of the firefighting effort. They argued that
7552-435: The air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres (12 mi) from
7680-500: The amount of equipment (the result of budget reductions and fires elsewhere), as well as serious communications issues. During the fire, 72 amateur ham radio operators had coordinated closely with Cal Fire and other agencies in the absence of telephone access. The report also criticized private firefighting equipment operators who showed up to the fire in hopes of being hired on the spot, causing confusion among officials who did not want responsibility for potentially unqualified operators. On
7808-720: The annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. In 2019, extreme heat and dryness caused massive wildfires in Siberia , Alaska , Canary Islands , Australia , and in
SECTION 60
#17328551045107936-470: The atmosphere and thus contribute to the greenhouse effect . This creates a climate change feedback . Naturally occurring wildfires can have beneficial effects on those ecosystems that have evolved with fire. In fact, many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction. The ignition of a fire takes place through either natural causes or human activity (deliberate or not). Natural occurrences that can ignite wildfires without
8064-444: The atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from
8192-402: The audit criticized the use of large and expensive helicopters and air tankers, and the disparity in compensation between very low-paid inmate firefighters (who did much of the difficult and dangerous physical labor on the fire line) and their correctional officers/supervisors. Investigators pinpointed the precise spot where the fire started, using forensic techniques that even included examining
8320-413: The burn area; they are commemorated on a Fountain Fire historical marker. On October 15, Bentley was killed when he was struck by a partially-burned limb that fell from a tree as he took a break beneath it. On November 2, Hendrickson, a skidder operator, was hit by a falling snag and died after being airlifted to a Redding hospital. Tyler died almost a year later, on July 15, 1993, after being run over by
8448-470: The cause of the Fountain Fire was probable arson. A Cal Fire spokesperson declared that "the probability is that someone used a match or cigarette lighter to ignite the fire and took it with them." Secret Witness, a non-profit organization, offered a $ 10,000 reward for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the responsible party. Cal Fire investigators followed about 50 leads, with none leading to an arrest. The statute of limitations for prosecuting
8576-400: The challenges residents and firefighting personnel both face in the wildland-urban interface . The Fountain Fire was surpassed by later California wildfires in metrics for losses, but it remains notable for its speed, its widespread destruction in multiple communities, and the long-term alteration of the landscape within its footprint. The Fountain Fire burned in eastern Shasta County, part of
8704-405: The city of Redding . As the fire swept through the community of Round Mountain, it burned at temperatures of up to 2,000 °F (1,090 °C), melting a cast-iron bathtub, stainless steel knives, chrome car bumpers, glass bottles, and even cooking potatoes growing underground. No one was killed or severely injured when the fire front pushed through the town, but multiple people drove out through
8832-614: The day the fire was contained—included almost $ 18 million in residential losses, almost $ 2 million in commercial losses, and $ 86 million in timber losses. At the time, the Fountain Fire was the third most destructive wildfire in recorded California history (after the Oakland firestorm of 1991 and the 1990 Painted Cave Fire in Santa Barbara ), though it no longer ranks among the top 20 most destructive California wildfires. The communities affected were economically vulnerable before
8960-583: The direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , United States, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. Fire lookout Once
9088-477: The dry, southern tail of a rapidly moving cold front." In the Fountain Fire's vicinity on August 20, southwest winds were blowing at speeds of up to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). The Fountain Fire was first spotted by a fire lookout atop Hogback Mountain in the Shasta-Trinity National Forest at about 12:50 p.m. PDT on August 20. The lookout reported a smoke column behind a ridge, near
9216-693: The earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million. Some research has shown wildfire smoke can have a cooling effect. Research in 2007 stated that black carbon in snow changed temperature three times more than atmospheric carbon dioxide. As much as 94 percent of Arctic warming may be caused by dark carbon on snow that initiates melting. The dark carbon comes from fossil fuels burning, wood and other biofuels, and forest fires. Melting can occur even at low concentrations of dark carbon (below five parts per billion)". Wildfire prevention refers to
9344-568: The eastern slopes of the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada . Those winds also brought dry air, a result of the dry slot—a zone of clear, dry air which often accompanies low-pressure systems . The Northern California Geographical Coordination Center identifies this as a typical critical fire weather setup in northeastern California and the southern Cascades: "Pre-frontal conditions occur when strong, southwesterly or westerly winds are generated by
9472-411: The economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life. The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in
9600-408: The elementary school in Round Mountain, including its auditorium and library. The Hill Country Community Clinic also burned down, leaving the nearest physician 30 miles away in Redding. The California Office of Emergency Services preliminarily estimated the cost of the Fountain Fire's damage to private property at $ 105.6 million (equivalent to about $ 205.9 million in 2023). This estimate—made
9728-514: The face of the adverse conditions. One firefighter noted the challenges posed by the Fountain Fire burning largely in privately-owned forests: firefighters could have built fire lines and conduct firing operations wherever they chose in national forests , but not on land under private ownership and with power line. The Rural Fire Protection in America Steering Committee interviewed fire officials, though not local residents, and produced
9856-624: The findings to the Emergency Communications Center throughout the day. Often several lookouts will overlap in coverage areas and each will “cross” the same smoke, allowing the ECC to use triangulation from the radials to achieve an accurate location of the fire. Once ground crews and fire suppression aircraft are active in fire suppression, the lookout personnel continue to search for new smoke plumes which may indicate spotting and alterations that pose risks to ground crews. Working in
9984-608: The fire front was within 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of the town, and had set a log deck on fire at Sierra Pacific Industries ' mill on its western outskirts. However, once the Fountain Fire crested the hills west of Burney, it was no longer in alignment with the wind and up-slope terrain that had driven it along the Highway 299 corridor for the previous 36 hours. By midnight, the fire had burned more than 35,000 acres (14,000 ha) in total. The Fountain Fire's behavior and growth over its first two days were sobering to firefighters. On August 22,
10112-402: The fire front. Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds, and fire whirls with
10240-417: The fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F). Next, the pyrolysis of wood at 230 °C (450 °F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380 °C (720 °F) or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at 590 °C (1,000 °F). Even before
10368-464: The fire line into the drainage of Cow Creek . Some evacuation orders were re-issued, including for Oak Run and Mill Creek , but the fire did not burn any more structures and by that afternoon it was 40 percent contained in all. The winds failed to re-materialize on the 25th, though the weather remained hot and dry. Firefighters constructed firebreaks by hand in the Pit River canyon, in terrain so rugged that bulldozers could not operate and described by
10496-414: The fire moved through with 200-foot (61 m) flame lengths, blowing the roofs off of nearby barns with the force of its passage. Two men put out spot fires with a bulldozer. A helicopter looking for people who had not evacuated eventually discovered the group, surrounded by flames. It was able to land and extricate two women and a two-year-old child, but could not return. Firefighters could not safely reach
10624-502: The fire season. Fire lookouts can be paid staff or volunteer staff. Some volunteer organizations in the United States have started to rebuild, restore and operate aging fire lookout towers. Although it was considered as “man’s work” in the United States, women have been doing the job almost from its beginnings. The 2016 video game Firewatch follows the story of a fire lookout, Henry, in Shoshone National Forest after
10752-400: The fire shortly before 1:00 p.m., it was already 30 feet (9.1 m) across and it had climbed into the tree canopy. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (then CDF, now Cal Fire) dispatched numerous resources over the next 10 minutes; an observation aircraft arrived overhead by 1:07 p.m., reporting that the fire had already spread to 2–3 acres (0.8–1 ha) and
10880-417: The fire; as much as 90 percent of the populations of Round Mountain, Montgomery Creek, and nearby areas relied on some sort of public assistance. Jobs were often seasonal or dependent on tourism. The Red Cross estimated that 3/4ths of all those who lost their homes in the fire lacked insurance. The fire also damaged much of rural Shasta County's basic infrastructure. All of eastern Shasta County lost power when
11008-440: The firefighters should have cut more and larger fire lines between the flames and Montgomery Creek, and that crews did not defend structures that could have been saved. They also contended that many resources stood idle without orders for too long before engaging the fire or refused to engage at all. Multiple residents believed their homes were destroyed in backfires set by firefighters to slow the main fire. A Cal Fire battalion chief
11136-534: The first two fire engines on the scene being forced to defend a structure in the path of the Fountain Fire instead of suppressing the fire directly, and emphasized the lack of sufficient vegetation clearance around most structures. An article ran in the Paradise Post two weeks after the Fountain Fire, noting that the city of Paradise, California was susceptible to a similar wildfire, with its comparable geography, fuels, and climate. In 2018 most of Paradise burned to
11264-452: The flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 °C (1,470 °F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below. Wildfires have
11392-461: The flames or left their properties just before the fire reached them. By 5:00 p.m., fifteen people were trapped in an 80-acre (32 ha) meadow at the end of Frisby Road after flames blocked the way out to Highway 299. The McMillan family, ranchers and owners of the meadow property, had planned to go there in case of a fire and were able to wet the area down with water trucks and flood it by blocking irrigation ditches. The group remained there as
11520-421: The flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in
11648-441: The force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions. Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms
11776-409: The forest was owned by the state or the federal government; the other 34 percent belonged to smaller private landowners. Both long-term climatic patterns and short-term weather conditions helped create an environment conducive to a large and uncontrollable wildfire in late August 1992. Between 1987 and 1992, California experienced a six-year drought of a duration and severity not seen in the state since
11904-450: The ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around
12032-620: The ground in an urban firestorm when the wind-driven Camp Fire blew through, killing 85 people and destroying more than 18,000 structures to become California's deadliest and most destructive wildfire. The smoke plume from the Fountain Fire gradually drifted southwest over the Bay Area and California coast, including Sonoma , Mendocino , Lake , and Napa counties; it prompted hundreds of calls to fire departments in Santa Cruz , Scotts Valley , and elsewhere on August 22 and 23 from people who thought
12160-424: The high winds drove the fire into brush beneath power lines, which arced , starting multiple spot fires . Firefighters were unable to keep the Fountain Fire from continuing towards the community of Round Mountain. Round Mountain, Montgomery Creek, and the small subdivision of Moose Camp were all evacuated around 4:00 p.m. By 4:30 p.m., the fire had crossed Highway 299. This was also the approximate time that
12288-490: The infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays . The Department of Natural Resources signed a contract with PanoAI for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of
12416-470: The involvement of humans include lightning , volcanic eruptions , sparks from rock falls, and spontaneous combustions . Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the tropics , farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during
12544-472: The larger head of the fire to the east continued advancing, forcing the communities of Big Bend , Hillcrest, and Moose Camp to be evacuated. The fire burned through Moose Camp—a community of 60 summer cabins and several permanent homes—later that day, leaving about 20 cabins standing. By 6:00 p.m. on August 21, the larger town of Burney was placed under a voluntary evacuation advisory. California Highway Patrol officers used bullhorns to warn residents, and
12672-482: The main base camp for firefighters. On Sunday, August 23 alone, air tankers dropped 212,000 gallons of fire retardant, a then-record for the Forest Service air attack base in Redding. Aircraft, including Grumman S2Fs and Lockheed P-3 Orions , dropped over 740,000 gallons of fire retardant in total and were joined by at least 15 water-dropping helicopters and more than 470 ground vehicles. A Cal Fire official described
12800-434: The main body of the fire. In the morning, fire crews focused on protecting Montgomery Creek by attempting to stop one branch of the fire's advance at Fenders Ferry Road off of Highway 299, south of the community and north of Round Mountain. While firefighters were able to protect many structures along the road, they were unable to prevent the winds (a combination of continuing gusts from the southwest and inflow winds towards
12928-420: The need to maintain their own operations in the face of uncertain funding and reimbursement. At the peak of the suppression effort, around 4,464 personnel—of whom at least 600 were California Conservation Camp Program prison inmates paid one dollar per day—worked to fight the fire. Firefighters worked shifts as long as 24 hours. The Shasta County fairgrounds in the town of Anderson , south of Redding, served as
13056-403: The north, though the same winds made containing the southern flank more difficult. Residents of Round Mountain and Montgomery Creek were briefly allowed to return to their properties. Before dawn on August 24, low humidity and winds of up to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) prompted a red flag warning for much of Northern California and also caused the fire to briefly become more active, jumping
13184-496: The only communities still under mandatory evacuation orders, and almost all evacuees were able to return by August 28. At least two Shasta County residents were convicted of burglary for looting an evacuated home in Oak Run. The Fountain Fire destroyed 636 structures. Homes accounted for 330 of them, with the remainder being commercial structures or outbuildings such as barns or sheds. Another 78 homes were damaged. The fire burned part of
13312-452: The other hand, the committee report noted that 60 percent of the homes in the area of the Fountain Fire fell short of state standards for wildfire safety, including construction, brush clearance, and water access. The fire could not have been stopped given the windy conditions, most of the homes destroyed were indefensible, and the area was "a disaster waiting to happen", the report concluded. In 1994, Cal Fire Director Richard A. Wilson ordered
13440-457: The point where the fire exceeded the ability of the resources on scene to control it. By 2:50 p.m. these resources included 25 fire engines, ten air tankers, and three helicopters. At around 3:30 p.m., per a Roseburg Forest Industries brochure, fire activity intensified still further. Officials initially hoped to hold the fire at Highway 299 outside of Round Mountain, keeping it under 200 acres (81 ha). They were nearly successful, but
13568-480: The preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement. Wildfire prevention programs around
13696-430: The presumed act of arson expired three years later in 1995, though Cal Fire said then that it would continue investigating, with a spokesperson noting that "If a person has ignited one fire, they may have lit them before or they may light them later." A new California arson statute with harsher penalties and a longer statute of limitations was enacted in 1994 but did not apply retroactively. No precise motive or perpetrator
13824-412: The remaining people and evacuate them until 10:00 p.m., five hours after they had taken refuge in the meadow. Meanwhile, the fire continued moving north and east: by midnight, the fire had pushed further along the Highway 299 corridor and was south of Montgomery Creek. By then it had burned approximately 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) and forced 1,000–2,000 people to evacuate. The following day marked
13952-676: The removal of hazardous trees and the replacement of around 300 burned guard rail posts. McArthur-Burney Falls Memorial State Park , home to Burney Falls , was closed when the evacuation warning for Burney was issued and thereafter used as a camp for firefighters. In total, about 7,500 people were forced to evacuate because of the Fountain Fire. The majority of these evacuees were able to return to their homes on August 22, leaving 2,000–3,000 still displaced from Moose Camp, Montgomery Creek, Hillcrest, and Round Mountain. Some residents of burned areas were able to access their properties on August 23 and 24. By August 25, Big Bend, Moose Camp, and Hillcrest were
14080-404: The risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in
14208-434: The same month, Cal Fire also released its own internal report on the Fountain Fire. Issued by a four-member committee of Northern California fire chiefs and officers, it relied on interviews with 24 different fire officials (but no victims). The Cal Fire report was again mostly favorable to the agency, but listed several areas for improvement. It concluded that during the first 48 hours of the fire there were too few managers for
14336-423: The single largest day of growth for the Fountain Fire as similar weather conditions continued to fuel extreme fire behavior. At one point the fire burned 80 acres (32 ha) every minute and spread at a rate of six miles per hour (9.7 km/h). This growth was enabled by more long-range spotting , as wind-borne embers started spot fires between one-quarter mile (0.40 km) and two miles (3.2 km) ahead of
14464-504: The smoke came from a local fire. Various local flora and fauna were threatened by the fire. The fire approached critical habitats for the endangered and protected northern spotted owl and California spotted owl . The fire also threatened the only known populations of the Shasta snow-wreath , a rare deciduous shrub only recognized as an undiscovered species by botanists in May 1992, just months before
14592-485: The southern extent of the Cascade Range . The area was a secondary forest , having entirely regrown after logging in 1886–1923. The forest contained mixed conifers , comprising incense cedar , Douglas fir , sugar pine , and ponderosa pine , among other species. Most of the forest that the Fountain Fire burned—65 percent—was owned and managed by timber companies, including Roseburg Forest Products , Sierra Pacific Industries , and Fruit Growers Supply. Only one percent of
14720-399: The techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression
14848-739: The third day of the fire, Cal Fire deputy incident commander Bill Clayton predicted that the fire would grow to 100,000 acres (40,000 ha). A memo posted for crews read: "The fire has moved 7 miles in 6.5 hours the first day, faster the second day (Friday). Prepare for more of the same today. It is critically dry, fueled with variable winds, has produced rapid fire runs and heavy spotting which have ran out crews many times." However, August 22 ended up bringing much more moderate weather conditions and fire behavior. Cooler temperatures and lighter winds allowed firefighters to gain ground. That morning, firefighters lit backfires off Highway 299 near Hatchet Mountain to prepare and strengthen control lines. This tactic
14976-445: The time, fire officials highlighted the Fountain Fire as a "fire of the future", connecting the destruction of the wildfire to California's growing population, particularly in the wildland-urban interface. A Cal Fire spokesperson called fires like it "the price we pay for living where we choose to live". By 1992, more than 1,000 building permits were being issued every year outside of cities and towns in Shasta County. Firefighters recalled
15104-936: The use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote-Sensing Satellite 's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C (102 °F). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection
15232-411: The wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. The health effects of wildfire smoke, such as worsening cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, extend beyond immediate exposure, contributing to nearly 16,000 annual deaths,
15360-519: The world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use (WFU) and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity. Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over
15488-466: The years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is controlled burning : intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and
15616-463: Was assaulted during the fire by a man who reportedly disagreed with the way it was being fought. Eventually, in November, more than 200 residents attended a meeting to air their disagreements over Cal Fire's efforts. Representatives for area politicians, including for U.S. House Representative Wally Herger , attended. Fire officials pushed back on these criticisms, asserting primarily that fire behavior
15744-541: Was contained after burning for nine days, though work to strengthen and repair fire lines continued for more than two months. The Fountain Fire consumed 63,960 acres (25,880 ha) and destroyed hundreds of homes, primarily in Round Mountain and Montgomery Creek along the State Route 299 corridor. In 1992, it was the third most destructive wildfire in California's recorded history, though it no longer features among
15872-578: Was ever determined, though one federal prosecutor told The Sacramento Bee in 1994 that he believed it was economic arson committed by someone intending to make money from the fire suppression effort. This was a motive linked to several other fires in Northern California at the time, some of which resulted in indictments. No deaths were directly caused by the fire. However, three loggers —Melvin Bentley, Donald Hendrickson, and Steve Horton Tyler—were killed in separate incidents during salvage logging operations in
16000-444: Was moving north quickly. Ground personnel arrived at 1:19 p.m., 29 minutes after the first report. The first two fire engines on the scene were forced to defend an under-construction house that was at risk from blowing embers. Firefighters saved multiple homes, but the fire still grew rapidly. By 2:17 p.m. the Fountain Fire had burned 40–50 acres (16–20 ha) in its first 90 minutes, and Cal Fire officials later marked this as
16128-762: Was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger. Since 2021 NASA has provided active fire locations in near real-time via
16256-525: Was repeated in the afternoon as the fire closed to within one mile (1.6 km) of Burney. By the end of the day, it was clear that the head of the fire was progressing to the northeast of Burney and not towards it, and the Forest Service was calling the fire 30 percent contained. During the 22nd and 23rd, the flanks of the fire remained problematic: the fire moved both northeast towards the Pit River and southwest towards Oak Run and other communities. Stopping
16384-451: Was so intense that losses were unavoidable: many structures lay at the end of long driveways adjacent to heavy vegetation and could not have been safely protected. They also argued that without the context of internal communications, firefighters running out of water and leaving to get more was likely misinterpreted as abandoning structure defense. Finally, they pointed to at least 228 buildings that had been saved as evidence of their success in
#509490