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111-501: Fort Pickens was part of the Third System of Fortifications , meant to enhance the old earthworks and simple, obsolete designs of the First and Second System of Fortifications . Fort Pickens was of a Pentagonal design, with broader western walls to provide a wide range of fire over the bay. The fort had a counterscarp to the east side exclusively, to create a defensive moat in the event that

222-698: A War Department order. By the end of the 1920s, eight harbor defense commands in less-threatened areas were completely disarmed. These included the Kennebec River, ME, Baltimore, MD, Potomac River, MD and VA, Cape Fear River, NC, Savannah, GA, Tampa Bay, FL, Mobile, AL, and the Mississippi River, LA. It is possible the mine defenses were retained in reserve. Some of these commands were rearmed with " Panama mounts " for mobile artillery early in World War II. USS Niagara (1855) The second USS Niagara

333-772: A brevet brigadier general in the U.S. Army) designed the larger forts and key features of most of the smaller forts, such as the Totten casemate , which allowed a good field of fire with a minimal embrasure size. By the end of the Third System in 1867, 42 forts covered the major harbors along the coastline. While most of the forts were completed, several of the forts—mostly in New England—were still under construction. A few of these forts, such as Fort Preble, Fort Totten, and Fort Constitution, were readied for armament even though they were far from complete. The Corps of Engineers listed

444-455: A coastal defense system that was equal to any other nation. The rapidity of technological advances and changing techniques increasingly separated coastal defenses (heavy) from field artillery (light). Officers were rarely qualified to command both, requiring specialization. As a result, in 1907, Congress split Field Artillery and Coast Artillery into separate branches, creating a separate Coast Artillery Corps (CAC), and authorized an increase in

555-478: A committee to study coast defense needs, and appropriated money to construct a number of fortifications that would become known as the First System. Twenty significant forts at 13 harbors were approved for construction, mostly with traditional low-walled structures with low sloped earthworks protecting wood or brick walls. The conventional wisdom was that soft earth would cushion the effect of cannon fire against

666-475: A defense against naval attack than a strategic offensive weapon. However, planes like the Boeing B-17 , which evolved as defensive weapons, turned out to have excellent offensive capacity as well. In the early 1920s several types of weapons, mostly those with only a few deployed, were withdrawn from Coast Artillery service. This was probably to simplify the supply situation. The only widely deployed type withdrawn

777-847: A few batteries at each harbor. Following the infamous and tragic explosion and sinking of the new battleship USS  Maine on 15 February, an Act of Congress a month later of 9 March 1898 authorized the construction of batteries that could be rapidly armed at numerous East Coast locations. It was feared that the Spanish fleet would bombard US ports. Completion of Endicott batteries and refurbishment or redeployment of 1870s batteries were also included. The 1870s-type batteries were armed with Civil War-era Rodman guns and Parrott rifles, along with some new weapons: 21 8-inch M1888 guns (slated for incomplete Endicott forts) on modified 1870s Rodman gun carriages. New batteries were also begun for eight 6-inch Armstrong guns and 34 4.72-inch Armstrong guns , purchased from

888-452: A few of the 6-inch guns and none of the 5-inch guns were returned to the coast defenses after the war. Most of the 6-inch guns were stored until remounted in World War II, and the 5-inch guns were declared obsolete and scrapped circa 1920. A large-scale program to mount 12-inch mortars along with 8-inch, 10-inch, and 12-inch guns and some other weapons as railway artillery was partially implemented during and shortly after World War I, with

999-963: A few years as modern emplacements for them were completed. Army leaders realized that heavy fixed artillery required different training programs and tactics than mobile field artillery. Prior to 1901 each of the seven artillery regiments contained both heavy and light artillery batteries. In February 1901, with the Endicott program well under way, the Artillery Corps was divided into two types: field artillery and coast artillery. The previous seven artillery regiments were dissolved, and 30 numbered companies of field artillery (commonly called batteries) and 126 numbered companies of coast artillery (CA) were authorized. 82 existing heavy artillery batteries were designated as coast artillery companies, and 44 new CA companies were created by splitting existing units and filling their ranks with recruits. The company-based organization

1110-401: A fire direction tower were also mounted on its upper surface. The 25-to-36-foot-thick (7.6 to 11.0 m) fortress walls protected extensive ammunition magazines, machine spaces, and living quarters for the 200 man garrison. The extensive level of fortification was not typical of the period, but driven by the exposed location. Although the design predated concerns about defense from air attack,

1221-525: A land invasion came from the west. The westernmost Bastions were also equipped with mine chambers, to be detonated in a last-ditch-effort to save the fort from invaders. After the War of 1812 , the United States decided to fortify all of its major ports. French engineer Simon Bernard was appointed to design Fort Pickens. Construction lasted from 1829 to 1834, with 21.5 million bricks being used to build it. Much of

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1332-636: A large-scale modernization program of harbor and coastal defenses in the United States, especially the construction of modern steel bar- reinforced concrete fortifications of more formidable defenses and the installation of large caliber breech-loading artillery and mortar batteries. Typically, Endicott period projects were not fortresses, but a system of well-dispersed emplacements with a few large guns in each location. The structures were usually open-topped concrete walls protected by earthworks berms and embedded in their deep trench sloping walls. Many of these featured disappearing guns , which sat protected behind

1443-531: A limited time in which to fire at passing enemy ships. To build these tall forts, walls had to be built of masonry , but be very thick in order to withstand the pounding of cannon fire. Despite the goal of building multi-tiered forts, only a few of these were completed, notably Castle Williams in New York Harbor. Most completed Second System forts generally resembled First System forts, with a one-tier star fort supplemented by water batteries. The Second System

1554-536: A massive $ 127 million dollars construction program of breech-loading cannons with rifled / grooved barrels for firing pointed shells (rather than old-fashioned cannon balls), mortars, floating batteries, and submarine mines for some 29 locations on the U.S. coastlines (East, South and West). Most of the new Board's recommendations were adopted by the President, the Congress and the two military executive departments. This led to

1665-468: A massive structure roughly resembling a concrete battleship. It was the only true sea fort of the Endicott and Taft programs. The fort was topped with a pair of armored steel gun turrets, each mounting two 14-inch (356 mm) M1909 guns ; this model was specially designed for Fort Drum and was not deployed elsewhere. Four 6-inch (152 mm) M1908 guns on M1910 pedestal mounts in casemates were also equipped. Searchlights, anti-aircraft batteries, and

1776-501: A minor but increasingly important factor in World War I , and the threat prompted changes to coastal defenses in the 1920s and 1930s. Demonstrations in the 1920s by U.S. Army General Billy Mitchell showed the vulnerability of warships to air attack; this illustrated the use of aircraft for seacoast defense against ships, but also the vulnerability of defenses against air power. In the isolationist United States, bombers were seen as more of

1887-512: A need for improved coastal defense systems. In 1885, 22nd (& 24th) President Grover Cleveland (1837-1908, served 1885-1889 / 1893-1897), in his first term appointed a joint Army, Navy, and civilian board, headed by his U.S. Secretary of War William Crowninshield Endicott , (1826-1900, served 1885-1889), known as the Board of Fortifications . The findings of the board illustrated a grim picture of existing defenses in its 1886 report and recommended

1998-431: A piece located at West Point was moved to Battery Cooper in 1976. Little consideration was given to the preservation of the old fort during the construction of Endicott Batteries. The parapet on The south wall of the fort was demolished, along with the officers' quarters beneath. The barbette on the southeast wall was also removed, along with the casemate arches of the southernmost bastion. These changes were made to allow

2109-792: A ten-week period, due to the Eight-eight fleet war scare with Japan. These guns were operated by the Marines until circa 1910, when the Coast Artillery Corps' modern defenses centered on Fort Wint on Grande Island were completed. One of the most extreme fortresses of the early 20th century was Fort Drum in Manila Bay of the Philippines . Originally a barren rock island, it was leveled by U.S. Army engineers between 1910 and 1914 and then built up with thick layers of steel-reinforced concrete into

2220-456: Is buried underneath an artificial hill to protect from air attacks. The guns were never fitted during the war, but were donated in 1976 by the Smithsonian and are present today. To protect from the threat of German dive bombers, Battery Langdon was casemated in 1943. The 12-inch barbette guns that were in place were kept, but 17 feet of concrete was added to create a bomb proof bunker. The bunker

2331-694: Is now Naval Air Station Pensacola . When Union forces abandoned Fort McRee in 1861, they also abandoned Fort Barrancas, pulling back to Fort Pickens. This fort was also occupied by Florida and Alabama militia forces, who were subsequently integrated into the Confederate forces. In May 1862, after hearing that the Union Army had taken New Orleans , Confederate troops abandoned Pensacola and Fort Barrancas. The fort reverted to Union control. 30°19′37″N 87°17′27″W  /  30.3270°N 87.2907°W  / 30.3270; -87.2907 Seacoast defense in

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2442-580: The Amphitrite class , while the ocean-going navy was slow to make the transition to steel hulls and armor plating. An improvement on the monitor concept was the coastal battleship, such as the Indiana class of the 1890s. As a result of the Spanish–American War and the subsequent acquisition of territories of Hawaii and its chain of islands in the central Pacific Ocean and the Philippines islands in

2553-575: The New York Daily Times , where it was published on Thursday, 14 May 1857. On arrival in England, Niagara was equipped to lay cable for the first transatlantic telegraph , which was to follow the shallow tableland discovered between Newfoundland and Ireland by Matthew F. Maury . By 11 August, when a break in the cable defied recovery, she had laid several hundred miles westward from Valentia Island , Ireland. She returned to New York 20 November and

2664-456: The Armistice , due to shipping priorities. The mortars and 8-inch guns were on trainable mounts, thus were suitable for use as coast defense weapons; the other weapons were returned to the forts after the war. Sources indicated that up to 91 12-inch mortars and 47 8-inch guns were retained as railway coast defense weapons through World War II, with most of the 8-inch guns deployed and almost all of

2775-680: The Atlantic coast . Before independence from Britain, the colonies bore cost and responsibilities for their own protection. Urgency would wax and wane based on the political climate in Europe . Most defenses were artillery protected by earthworks , as protection from pirate raids and foreign incursions. In the American colonies and the United States, coastal forts were generally more heavily constructed than inland forts, and mounted heavier weapons comparable to those on potential attacking ships. Though seldom used,

2886-568: The Caribbean Sea . On 21 August, the USS ; Dolphin captured the slave ship Echo off Cuba with men, women, and children taken from Kabenda , Guinea . There were originally 450 to 470 Africans, but that number had dwindled to 306 when they arrived at Castle Pinckney , Charleston, South Carolina . Congressional law required the return of the Africans to Monrovia, Liberia and the huge size of

2997-704: The Dry Tortugas , and Fort Monroe in Virginia . Captives from Indian Wars in the West were transported to the East Coast to be held as prisoners. From October 1886 to May 1887, Geronimo , a noted Apache war chief, was imprisoned in Fort Pickens, along with several of his warriors. Their families were held at Fort Marion in St. Augustine. During the late 1890s and early 20th century,

3108-597: The East Gulf Blockading Squadron . She engaged Confederate defenses at Fort McRee , Pensacola, and Warrington on 22 November, and was hulled twice above the waterline. On 5 June 1862 she sailed for repairs at Boston Navy Yard , where she decommissioned 16 June. Recommissioned 14 October 1863, Niagara steamed from New York on 1 June 1864 to watch over Confederate warships then fitting out in Europe. She reached her base at Antwerp on 26 June, and from there roved

3219-580: The English Channel , the French Atlantic Coast and the Bay of Biscay . On 15 August she took steamer Georgia , a former Confederate warship, off Portugal . In February and March, with USS  Sacramento she lay at Ferrol, Spain , to prevent Confederate ironclad Stonewall from departing, but the much more powerful southern ship was able to make good her escape. William B. Gould served on board

3330-709: The Montalembert concept, with many guns concentrated in tall, thick masonry walls, and the Vauban concept, with layers of low, protected-masonry walls. Most Third System forts had at least two tiers of cannon; the First and Second System forts often had only one tier. Construction was generally overseen by officers of the Army's Corps of Engineers . Smaller works guarded less significant harbors. U.S. Army engineer officer Joseph Totten and former French engineer officer Simon Bernard (commissioned

3441-604: The Navy Yard . Located at the western tip of Santa Rosa Island, just offshore from the mainland, Fort Pickens guarded the island and the entrance to the harbor. On the night of 20 January 1858, the USCS Robert J. Walker was at Pensacola when a major fire broke out at Fort Pickens. The cutter's men and boats, joined by the hydrographic party of the United States Coast Survey steamer USCS Varina , rallied to fight

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3552-632: The Niagara made her well suited for returning them. On 20 September, Captain John S. Chauncey boarded 271 Africans who were suffering terribly from scurvy and dysentery. Chauncey expected to reach Africa in twenty days, but that changed when a heavy northwest wind took the Niagara way off course. Seventy-one Africans died before he reached Monrovia on 9 November. Captain Chauncey sent 200 survivors ashore and arrived back in New York Harbor on 11 December. Six days later,

3663-758: The Niagara was decommissioned. Niagara recommissioned on 14 May 1860, Captain William McKean in command. Another unique assignment awaited; she was to carry Japan's first diplomatic mission to the United States from Washington to New York, and then home. Leaving New York on 30 June, Niagara called in Porto Grande , Cape Verde Islands ; São Paulo-de-Loande (now Luanda ), Angola ; Batavia (now Djakarta ), Java ; and Hong Kong . The frigate entered Tokyo Bay on 8 November to land her distinguished passengers, then sailed on 27 November for Hong Kong, Aden , and Cape Town , returning Boston on 23 April 1861 to learn of

3774-525: The Spooner Act of 1902. The Taft Program fortifications differed slightly in battery construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott Program. Due to the rapid development of dreadnought battleships , a new 14-inch gun was introduced in a few locations and improved models of other weapons were also introduced. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had

3885-474: The anti-aircraft mission in that war. A number of 5-inch and 6-inch guns were withdrawn from coast defenses and remounted on wheeled carriages for use on the Western Front , with about 72 6-inch (possibly including some Navy guns) and 26 5-inch guns shipped to France. However, due to the Armistice , none of the units equipped with repurposed coast defense guns completed training in time to see action. Only

3996-401: The coast defense command . The larger vessels, called " mine planters ", were civilian crewed until the creation of the U.S. Army Mine Planter Service (AMPS) and Warrant Officer Corps to provide officers and engineers for these vessels in 1918. The mine component was considered to be among the principal armament of coastal defense works. When the Coast Artillery Corps was disestablished and

4107-647: The torpedo service and for other harbor defenses. Prior efforts at harbor defense construction had ceased in the 1870s . Since that time, the design and construction of heavy ordnance in Europe had advanced rapidly, including the development of superior breech-loading and longer-ranged cannon, making U.S. harbor defenses obsolete. In 1883, the United States Navy began a new construction program and class of steel-hulled, steam-powered propeller warships with rotating gun turrets with an emphasis on offensive rather than defensive vessels. These factors combined to create

4218-517: The 5-inch guns had been sent to France for use on field carriages. Additionally, approximately 72 6-inch guns withdrawn from coast defenses for field service were not immediately remounted; these were eventually remounted on long-range carriages in new batteries during World War II . Except in a few cases, none of these weapons were directly replaced. On 9 June 1925 the Coast Defense Commands were redesignated as Harbor Defense Commands via

4329-528: The Army had new gun batteries constructed at Fort Pickens. These batteries were part of a program initiated by the Endicott Board , a group headed by a mid-1880s Secretary of War, William C. Endicott . Instead of many guns concentrated in a traditional thick-walled masonry structure, the Endicott batteries are spread out over a wide area, concealed behind concrete parapets flush with the surrounding terrain. The use of

4440-634: The Battle of Pensacola. Eventually, the Battle of Mobile Bay drew the last of the southern forces westward to Alabama to defend against Admiral Farragut's invasion forces. On May 10, 1862, the last Confederates at Pensacola surrendered to Fort Pickens. Despite repeated Confederate threats, Fort Pickens was one of only four Southern forts to remain in Union hands throughout the war, the others being Fort Taylor at Key West, Florida , Fort Jefferson at Garden Key , Florida in

4551-523: The British ships offshore was memorialized by Francis Scott Key , a Baltimore lawyer who witnessed the ferocious attack from one of the vessels, and put down his thoughts watching the barrage—which failed to either destroy the fort or subdue its defenders—in a four-stanza poem, which became known as The Star-Spangled Banner and later became America's national anthem. In some cases even incomplete forts (some with fake wooden cannon barrels painted black pointed out

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4662-476: The Civil War, but were impractical for open-ocean service and offensive action abroad. They were, however, ideally suited for coastal and harbor defense with their shallow draft and large guns. Postwar, Civil War-era monitors were dispersed to important major American harbors, including San Francisco on the west coast. From the 1870s to the 1890s , larger and more powerful breastwork monitors were produced, such as

4773-540: The Civil War. Except for the 20-inch Rodmans, of which only three Army weapons were built, the following list includes only widely deployed weapons. See Siege artillery in the American Civil War for more information. After the war, construction for several new Third System forts began in New England . These were to be built of stone rather than brick, and designed to accommodate the large-bore cannon developed during

4884-661: The Coast Artillery Corps to 170 numbered companies. In 1907, the Artillery School at Fort Monroe became the Coast Artillery School, which operated until 1946, and in 1908, the Chief of Artillery became the Chief of Coast Artillery. In an exercise in 1907 at Subic Bay , Philippines, a U.S. Marine battalion of the Advanced Base Force commanded by Major Eli K. Cole emplaced forty-four heavy guns for coast defense in

4995-541: The Corps of Engineers to create a military academy at West Point, New York . One of the driving forces for establishing the new academy was the need to divorce the United States from its reliance on foreign engineers. In 1807–8, new concerns over a possible war with Great Britain prompted President Thomas Jefferson to renew fortification programs; this has come to be known as the Second System. One event that foreshadowed war

5106-492: The First System and Second System little was prepared to resist the British in the coming War of 1812 . However, no First System or Second System fortress was captured by the British. The British succeeded in entering Chesapeake Bay by capturing a fort on Craney Island near Norfolk and bypassing the area's two other forts. The invasion of Baltimore was prevented by Fort McHenry and supporting forts and troops. These included shoreline batteries at Forts Babcock and Covington to

5217-556: The U.S. soldiers had sabotaged the guns and ordnance to prevent use by the Japanese. Ironically, even without the guns, the Japanese in Fort Drum were among the last holdouts when U.S. forces recaptured the Philippines in 1945. Mines as we know them today were frequently referred to as torpedoes in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The self-propelled torpedo as we know it was derived from

5328-490: The United Kingdom to provide some modern quick-firing medium-caliber guns, as none of the Endicott Program's 6-inch or 3-inch batteries had been completed. Field artillery , primarily 5-inch siege guns and 7-inch siege howitzers, was also deployed, mostly in the southeastern states of Georgia and Florida . Many of these batteries were not completed until 1899, after the war was over, and the 8-inch guns were withdrawn within

5439-620: The United States#Third System Seacoast defense was a major concern for the United States from its independence until World War II . Before airplanes , many of America's enemies could only reach it from the sea, making coastal forts an economical alternative to standing armies or a large navy . Substantial fortifications were built at key locations, especially protecting major harbors. Seacoast defense also included submarine minefields , nets and booms , ships, and, later, airplanes. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers played

5550-487: The War of 1812, Congress appropriated over $ 800,000 for an ambitious seacoast defensive system which was known as the Third System. A Board of Engineers for Fortifications, appointed by President James Madison , visited potential sites and prepared plans for the new forts. The Board's original 1821 report established the policy which would remain in place for most of the 19th century. The original report suggested 50 sites, but by 1850

5661-640: The accurate, long-range weapons eliminated the need for the concentration of guns that was common in the Third System fortifications. Battery Pensacola was constructed within the walls of Fort Pickens, while other similar concrete batteries were constructed to the east and west as separate facilities. The ruins of these later facilities are also included in the Gulf Islands National Seashore complex. As at many posts, obsolete weapons were repurposed during World War I; Battery Cooper's 6-inch M1905 guns on disappearing carriages were removed in 1917, but

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5772-416: The artillery branches merged in 1950, some of the mine planter vessels were transferred to the U.S. Navy and redesignated as Auxiliary Minelayers (ACM/MMA). These weapons were emplaced between 1895 and 1905. Only widely deployed weapons are listed. Most except the mortars, 3-inch guns, and some 6-inch guns were on disappearing carriages , with barbette carriages (also called pedestal carriages) used for

5883-459: The bay was effectively replaced by dispersed earthworks and low-walled fortifications nearby on Alcatraz Island , Angel Island , the Marin Headlands , and Fort Mason . Following the war, work on masonry forts ended in 1867, leaving several incomplete. Robert Fulton used the term "torpedo" to describe an underwater explosive device in 1805. Samuel Colt experimented with electrical firing of

5994-529: The board had identified nearly 200 sites for fortification. The Army built forts at 42 of these sites, with several additional sites containing towers or batteries. The forts were originally intended to mount mostly 42-pounder (7 inch or 178 mm) seacoast guns; however, due to a shortage of these weapons many 32-pounder (6.4 inch or 163 mm) seacoast guns and 8-inch (203 mm) and 10-inch (254 mm) columbiads were mounted instead. The main defensive works were often large structures, based on combining

6105-476: The central role in constructing fixed defenses, but all of the armed forces participated. Designs evolved and became obsolete with changes in the technology available to both the attacking forces and the defenders. The evolution of the U.S. seacoast defense system is generally identified among several "systems", which are somewhat defined by the styles used, but more so by the events or trends which periodically stimulated new funding and construction. The division of

6216-455: The concept of the mine, with early submarines and torpedo boats evolving as defensive weapons in the 1890s to deliver torpedoes against attacking fleets. During early development, it was not clear whether submarines and torpedo boats would be in the purview of the Army or the Navy, since the Army was responsible for the use and development of stationary minefields and other fixed coastal defenses. As

6327-461: The construction was done by enslaved persons. Its construction was supervised by Colonel William H. Chase of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . During the American Civil War he sided with the Confederacy and was appointed to command Florida's troops. Fort Pickens was the largest of a group of fortifications designed to defend Pensacola Harbor. It supplemented Fort Barrancas , Fort McRee , and

6438-510: The design proved to be exemplary for that purpose. After the outbreak of war in the Pacific on 7 December 1941, Fort Drum withstood heavy Japanese air and land bombardment as it supported U.S. and Filipino defenders on Bataan and Corregidor until the very end on 6 May 1942. The fortress was among the last U.S. posts to hold out against the Japanese and did not surrender until ordered by superiors after Corregidor had been overrun, but not until

6549-528: The early forts into the First and Second Systems was made by later historians, and appears officially in an 1851 report by Chief Engineer Joseph Totten , probably the most prolific builder of masonry forts in American history. After the 1940s, it was recognized that fixed fortifications were obsolete and ineffective against aircraft and missiles. At the beginning of the American Revolutionary War , many coastal fortifications already protected

6660-547: The embrasures) were sufficient to deter attack from the sea. But, undefended and unfortified, Washington, D.C. , the national capital, was burned after the land militia forces were routed at the Battle of Bladensburg northeast of the capital in Prince George's County, Maryland . Washington had one fort, which the British bypassed, Fort Washington on the Potomac River just below Alexandria, Virginia , whose commander ordered

6771-420: The end of the cable ashore at Bay Bulls Arm, Newfoundland, and the same day Agamemnon landed her end of the cable. The first message flashed across 16 August, when Queen Victoria sent a cable to President James Buchanan . This first cable operated for three weeks; ultimate success was only to come in 1866. During the summer of 1858, the U.S. Navy experienced increased pressure to interdict slave traffic in

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6882-659: The famous precedent-setting USS  Monitor ironclad warship of the Battle of Hampton Roads harbor in Virginia of March 1862, during the Civil War), as well as a future type of class for coastal warfare ships which closely followed her design by Swedish inventor John Ericsson (1803-1889), the term "monitor" also encompassed more flexible breastwork monitors which had a modest armored superstructure and were thus more seaworthy. These also featured modern rifled breech-loading guns. These post-1862 monitor-style ships of steel and iron were used extensively in offensive roles during

6993-491: The far western Pacific, off the coast of Asia in 1898. By the following early 1900s , the expanded American Navy under 26th President Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919, served 1901-1909), was committed to a Blue-water navy fleet of ocean-going steel battleships and cruisers and ceased building monitors; however, some of the older vessels remained in naval service up to World War I in combat-prepared roles, and as training or auxiliary vessels thereafter. The Endicott Program

7104-829: The fire. The next day, the captain of the Robert J. Walker received a communication from Captain John Newton of the United States Army Corps of Engineers , who commanded the harbor of Pensacola, acknowledging the important service rendered by the Robert J. Walker . By the time of the American Civil War , Fort Pickens had not been occupied since shortly after the Mexican–American War . Despite its dilapidated condition, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer , in charge of United States forces at Fort Barrancas , decided Fort Pickens

7215-477: The firing arc of Battery Pensacola's 12-inch Guns to clear with having to raise the battery. On June 20, 1899, a fire in Fort Pickens' Bastion D reached the bastion's magazine, which contained 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) of powder. The resulting explosion killed one soldier and obliterated Bastion D. The force of the explosion was so great that bricks from Bastion D's walls landed across the bay at Fort Barrancas, more than 1.5 miles (2.4 km) away. The damage

7326-469: The former being a perceived if not actual threat to U.S. harbors. This concern caused an increase in the use of mines and nets, and demand for superior artillery. However, as the war progressed it became more clear that the enemies did not have the resources to bring the war across the Atlantic, and progress diminished along with concerns. Curiously, despite the rise of air power in World War I , it received little consideration in U.S. coast defense design until

7437-437: The forts from northeast to southwest, then to the Pacific Coast. The same order is used here for the new-construction forts of the Third System: In addition, several towers and batteries were constructed in support of the forts or at lesser harbors. First and Second System forts were renovated during the system as well, and readied for the larger cannon prevalent during that period. Again, changes in technology affected design;

7548-411: The forts of each Artillery District. Most of the Endicott fortifications were constructed from 1895 through 1905. As the defenses were constructed, each harbor or river's installations were controlled by Artillery Districts, renamed Coast Defense Commands in 1913 and Harbor Defense Commands in 1925. By the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the Endicott Program had completed only

7659-487: The forts were a deterrent. During the Revolution, additional forts were built by both sides, usually to meet specific threats. Those built by Patriot forces were called Patriot batteries. When the United States gained independence in 1783, the seacoast defense fortifications were in poor condition. Concerned by the outbreak of war in Europe in 1793, the Congress created a combined unit of " Artillerists and Engineers " to design, build, and garrison forts in 1794, appointed

7770-401: The forts were also rearmed with these weapons. All of the larger Parrott rifles had burst frequently during the war, so few of these were retained in service after the war. Also during the 1870s, a number of new projects were started to include large caliber mortars and submarine mines . However, the facilities for the mortars and mines were never completed, and funding for the new fortifications

7881-400: The guns at Fort Barrancas , and moved his small force of 51 soldiers and 30 sailors to Fort Pickens. On January 15, 1861, and January 18, 1861, Slemmer refused surrender demands from Colonel William Henry Chase of the Florida militia. Chase had designed and constructed the fort as a captain in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . Slemmer defended the fort against threat of attack until he

7992-625: The higher velocity ordnance of new rifled cannons crushed and penetrated the masonry walls of Third System forts. Severe damage was inflicted to forts on the Atlantic Coast during the Civil War . For example, Fort Sumter in South Carolina was bombarded into surrender by Confederate batteries in 1861, and reduced to rubble during Union efforts towards its recapture. In 1862 Fort Pulaski in Georgia

8103-487: The installation and operation of the controlled mine fields from the Corps of Engineers; these were planted to be under observation, remotely detonated electrically, and protected by fixed guns. With that responsibility the Coast Artillery began to acquire the vessels required to plant and maintain the mine fields and cables connecting the mines to the mine casemate ashore, organized as a "Submarine Mine Battery" within

8214-480: The late 1770s, a French engineer, the Marquis de Montalembert , advocated a major change in the design of fortresses to address these problems. His design protected a fort's gunners by placing most of them in covered casemate walls with openings for the guns. By stacking rows of casemates in high walls more guns could be mounted along shorter walls. This was particularly important for seacoast fortifications, which had only

8325-594: The late 1930s, probably due to the emergence of Japanese aircraft carriers as a threat. In response to the rapid improvements in dreadnought battleships , approximately 14 two-gun batteries of 12-inch guns on a new M1917 long-range barbette carriage began construction in 1917, but none were completed until 1920. Due to their experience and training with large guns, the Coast Artillery operated all U.S. Army heavy artillery ( 155 mm gun and up) in World War I, primarily French- and British-made weapons. They also acquired

8436-526: The magazine blown when the passing British fleet appeared nearby, after the British had already occupied Washington. The present Fort Washington was built on the site of the destroyed Fort Washington in the early 1820s as part of the Third System. Among the many important and historic documents lost in the British burning of the Library of Congress were the plans to the first Fort Washington (begun as Fort Warburton) and other Second System forts. In 1816, following

8547-477: The mortars held in reserve. During World War I, the U.S. Navy implemented a more successful program that delivered five 14"/50 caliber railway guns to France in time to support the final Allied offensives. However, these weapons' mountings were not suitable for coast defense and they were retired after that war. A new 14-inch (356 mm) gun and improved versions of some Endicott period weapons were introduced from 1905 to 1918, supplementing rather than replacing

8658-583: The need for heavy fixed artillery for then modern seacoast defense was noted in 21st President Chester A. Arthur 's Second Annual Message to the Congress (later known as the State of the Union address, after 1913), as follows: I call your attention to the recommendation of the Secretary and the board that authority be given to construct two more cruisers of smaller dimensions and one fleet dispatch vessel , and that appropriations be made for high-power rifled cannon for

8769-407: The next three decades. Although improved in the late 19th century during the run-up to the Spanish–American War , the fort was struck by a hurricane on September 26–27, 1906 that destroyed most of the newer structures erected since 1898. After the hurricane, only a minimal caretaker staff was based there to ensure security of the site. Due to its site being accessible only by foot or boat, Fort McRee

8880-534: The outbreak of the Civil War. The cruise of the Niagara. Quickly preparing for duty on the blockade of southern ports, USS Niagara arrived off Charleston, South Carolina on 10 May, and two days later captured blockade runner CSS General Parkhill attempting to make Charleston from Liverpool . Through the summer she gave similar service at Mobile Bay , and was at Fort Pickens, Florida on 22 September when Flag Officer William McKean in Niagara took command of

8991-594: The previous weapons. The 14-inch guns were emplaced in the new harbor defenses of Los Angeles , Hawaii , the Panama Canal , and Manila Bay in the Philippines. A one-off 16-inch gun M1895 (406 mm) was also deployed on a disappearing carriage on the Pacific side of the Panama Canal in 1914; this was the first 16-inch gun in U.S. service. Only widely deployed seacoast weapons are included in this list. Airplanes were

9102-559: The progress on the Endicott Board's program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical; such as adding more searchlights , electrification (lighting, communications, and projectile handling), and more sophisticated optical aiming techniques. The board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain: Cuba and the Philippines , as well as Hawaii , and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by

9213-469: The range and potential uses of submarines and torpedo boats grew, it became more apparent that these were naval vessels, and both surface- and submarine-delivered torpedoes were an important aspect of naval coastal defense strategies. However, self-propelled torpedoes were not included in the Army's coastal defenses. Shore-launched Whitehead compressed air driven torpedoes were the first deployed, in Europe. Submarines and airplanes became more important, with

9324-480: The remainder. Although some harbor defenses in less-threatened locations were disarmed following World War I (some of these retained minefields), many of these weapons remained in service until superseded by 16-inch guns and scrapped during World War II . In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War , President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new fortifications board, under Secretary of War William Howard Taft . They updated some standards and reviewed

9435-539: The results were in the Union's favor. Fort McRee was nearly destroyed, and the town of Warrington and the Navy Yard were destroyed. A second bombardment, meant to finish off the Confederates, was initiated on New Year's Day 1862. Fort McRee was almost destroyed, and any buildings near Fort Barrancas were burned. Running low on supplies, and with dwindling morale, the Confederates began to doubt their chances of success in

9546-631: The roof of the fort. Additional " water batteries " (located near the waters the forts protected) outside the forts provided more firepower. Four of the First System forts were rebuilds of colonial forts, Fort Constitution in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Fort Independence in Boston, Massachusetts, Fort Wolcott in Newport, Rhode Island, and Fort Mifflin in Philadelphia. Lacking trained engineers to supervise

9657-455: The torpedo. During the Civil War, these underwater mines became an important supplementary defense measure. The Confederacy , without a large navy to protect its harbors, relied on mines extensively to deter attacks by Union ships. Electrically fired torpedoes , later termed mines, controlled from mine casemates ashore were developed during and after the Civil War as part of coastal defenses. Numerous types of seacoast artillery were used in

9768-572: The walls, and that low walls presented less exposure to projectiles. Walls were laid out at angles to each other to form a system of bastions , resembling a star layout , so that enemy forces could not mass against the bottom of a wall beneath the vertical field of fire from the wall; defenders on any wall could see and fire on the base of the adjacent walls. The angled walls also reduced the chance for more destructive straight-on hits from cannonballs. Most First System forts were relatively small, and with some exceptions mounted only one tier of cannon , on

9879-426: The walls, but could be raised to fire. With a few exceptions early in the program, These Endicott-style forts had no significant defenses against an amphibious land attack. Controlled mine fields were a critical component of the defense, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from enemy naval minesweeping vessels . An extensive Coast Artillery fire control system was developed and provided for

9990-474: The war. However, in 1867 money for masonry fortifications was cut off, and the Third System came to a close. The vulnerability of masonry to rifled cannon and large-caliber smoothbore cannon and fewer concerns for invasion led to the construction of well-dispersed masonry-revetted earthen fortifications with brick-lined magazines, often located near Third System forts. These were typically armed with 15-inch Rodman guns and 8-inch converted rifles ; in some cases,

10101-401: The weapons withdrawn from less-threatened forts and from spares. A general program to reduce mortars from four per pit to two per pit created a surplus of these weapons. The cramped pits created difficulties in reloading; a two-mortar pit had roughly the same rate of fire as a four-mortar pit. Despite a large-scale effort, of all these weapons only three 8-inch guns were delivered to France before

10212-555: The west, Fort Look-Out (or the Six-Gun Battery) on the peninsula to the rear in the west, a temporary naval battery across the Patapsco channel to the east at Lazaretto Point , and sunken ships blocking the channels on either side of Fort McHenry, along with 20,000 militia dug in on the east side of the town at "Loudenschlager's Hill" (later "Hampstead Hill" in today's Patterson Park ). The intense all-night bombardment of Fort McHenry by

10323-441: The work, Secretary of War Henry Knox hired a number of European engineers. Although some fine forts were constructed, for the most part enthusiasm and funding waned and little work was completed. Most of the partially finished earthworks and wooden structures deteriorated before they were needed to defend against the British in 1812 . In 1802, Congress separated the artillerists and engineers into separate corps and directed

10434-529: Was German U-Boats , which were already operating in the Gulf of Mexico. One addition to Fort Pickens's defense was Battery 234, which was meant to function alongside Battery 233 across the bay on Perdido Key . Many of these batteries were built across the nation, all with the same design, to replace the role of light artillery formerly held by the 3-Inch M1903 guns. Both batteries were designed to equip two 6-Inch M1905 guns in cast-steel casemates. The command center

10545-516: Was a screw frigate in the United States Navy . Niagara was launched by New York Navy Yard on 23 February 1855; sponsored by Miss Annie C. O'Donnell; and commissioned on 6 April 1857, with Captain William L. Hudson in command. Niagara sailed from New York on 22 April 1857 for England, arriving at Gravesend on 14 May. A log of the ship's voyage across the Atlantic was kept by the correspondent of

10656-448: Was constructed in 1923, with 12-inch guns meant to complement those already in place at Battery Pensacola. The guns were originally exposed to fire, but the ammunition and command center was stored inside of a reinforced embankment between the guns. The guns were later casemated in 1943. Fort Pickens was of interest in World War II to the U.S. Navy, and it was decided that the defenses of the fort needed to be strengthened. A specific threat

10767-399: Was cut off by 1878, leaving much of the program unfinished. By the 1880s most of the earthen fortifications were in disrepair. Though coastal defense was generally within the purview of the U.S. Army , the U.S. Navy became more involved in the late 19th century with coastal defense ships , generally called monitors . These monitors were turreted ironclad warships (inspired and named by

10878-469: Was decommissioned on 2 December to prepare for a second essay at cable-laying. Recommissioning on 24 February 1858, with Captain William L. Hudson in command, she sailed on 8 March, arrived at Plymouth , England, on 28 March, and experimented with HMS  Agamemnon . The ships returned to Plymouth to fit out, then made a mid-ocean rendezvous on 29 July, spliced their cable ends and each sailed toward her own continent. On 5 August, Niagara's boats carried

10989-536: Was distinguished from the First System by greater use of Montalembert's concepts and the replacement of foreign engineers by American ones, many of them recent graduates of the new United States Military Academy superintended by Major Jonathan Williams , who not only instructed the new engineers in new ideas of coastal defense, but also designed and constructed a prototype, Castle Williams on Governors Island in New York Harbor. Again, several fine forts were produced, but generally projects went unfinished, and between

11100-435: Was for flexibility, as each harbor defense command was differently equipped and a task-based organization was needed. The Coast Artillery would alternate between small unit and regimental organization several times over its history. The head of the Artillery Corps became the Chief of Artillery in the rank of brigadier general with jurisdiction over both types of artillery. Circa 1901 the Coast Artillery took responsibility for

11211-734: Was forced to surrender after only 30 hours of bombardment with rifled cannon, primarily large-caliber Parrott rifles . Many of the larger smoothbore cannon (32-pounder and up) were rifled and equipped with breech bands to support larger powder charges and extend their effective range during the Civil War. This process is referred to as "banded and rifled". During the Civil War, naval officers learned that their steamships and ironclad vessels could run past Confederate-held Third System forts with acceptable losses, such as at Mobile Bay . The urgencies of war required that new forts or improvements be constructed quickly and at low cost. Partially completed Third System forts were finished, but new construction

11322-401: Was largely implemented 1895–1905. As Endicott facilities were constructed in each harbor defense area, the previous coastal defenses were usually abandoned. Only widely deployed weapons are listed. The larger Parrott rifles had shown a tendency to burst during the war, so only a few were retained in service after the war, in emplacements that took advantage of their long range. As early as 1882,

11433-415: Was left to the elements. Storms and erosion have battered the site; today, nothing more than a few scattered foundations remain. Fort Barrancas , which was built around previously constructed 17th- and 18th-century Spanish forts, as well as Fort Barrancas' associated Advanced Redoubt approximately a mile (1.6 km) to the northwest of Fort Barrancas, are located across Pensacola Bay on the grounds of what

11544-407: Was mostly wood-revetted earthworks. Frequently earthworks were built near a Third System fort in order to supplement its firepower, but often they were stand-alone fortifications. In some cases, cannon from masonry forts were dispersed to earthen bunkers where they were better protected. The fortification of San Francisco Bay is a good example, where the typical Third System Fort Point at the mouth of

11655-537: Was reinforced and relieved on April 11, 1861, by Colonel Harvey Brown and the USS Brooklyn . The fort was further reinforced by Colonel William Wilson and elements of the 6th New York Infantry Regiment by late June 1861. The Confederates attacked the Fort on October 9, 1861, in the Battle of Santa Rosa Island , with a force of a thousand men. The attack came from the east, after forces landed four miles away. The attack

11766-757: Was relatively confined to Bastion D, but the foundations were torn away along with sections of the walls to allow for easier access to the batteries. This proved easier than trying to fit mechanical equipment for Battery Pensacola through the Sally Port. As with many other forts, Panama mounts were planned for in the interwar era, beginning in 1937. Four 155mm GPF guns were placed around Battery Cooper, two forward, and one to each side, in 1942. The guns used concrete rings for positioning and aiming, which still remain today. The guns, however, have been long since removed. The 155 battery used Battery Cooper's magazines, communications, and other support facilities. Battery Langdon

11877-606: Was repelled by artillery and gunfire, and the Confederates retreated with 90 casualties. After tensions in Pensacola grew, and the Confederates secured posts at Fort McRee and Fort Barrancas, the Federal forces decided to shell the confederate forts. On November 22, two Union warships, the Niagara and the Richmond , sailed into the bay, and the bombardment began. The attack lasted two days, and

11988-486: Was the Chesapeake–Leopard affair . One common weakness among the typical low-walled open bastion or star forts was exposure to enemy fire, especially to new devices designed to explode in mid air and rain shrapnel down on the gunners. Gun emplacements which were at an angle to the sea were vulnerable to a solid shot running parallel to the wall taking out a row of guns and gunners with one enfilading shot. In

12099-537: Was the 3-inch M1898 Driggs-Seabury gun with masking parapet (simplified disappearing) mounts, at least 111 of which had been emplaced. The disappearing function had already been disabled due to interfering with aiming the gun, and the weapon had an alarming tendency for the piston rod to break on firing. Others included 6-inch Armstrong guns (9 guns), all three types of 4.72-inch Armstrong guns (34 guns), 4-inch/40 caliber Navy Driggs-Schroeder guns (4 guns), and all models of 5-inch guns (52 guns). Twenty-six of

12210-439: Was the most defensible post in the area. He decided to abandon Fort Barrancas when, around midnight of January 8, 1861, his guards repelled a group of local civilians who intended to occupy the fort. Some historians claim that these were the first shots fired in the Civil War. On January 10, 1861, the day Florida declared its secession from the Union, Slemmer destroyed over 20,000 pounds of gunpowder at Fort McRee . He then spiked

12321-486: Was then covered in sand and dirt to create an artificial hill around the battery, for additional protection. Fort McRee was built on Perdido Key across Pensacola Pass from Fort Pickens. Abandoned by Union forces and taken over by Florida and Alabama militia in January 1861, it was badly damaged by Union bombardment during the American Civil War later that year. Abandoned by Confederate forces, Fort McRee remained in ruins for

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