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65-405: A forge typically uses bituminous coal , industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal , coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to

130-512: A "cutting table" That is used for cutting hot or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvil's face. Marks on the face transfer into imperfections in the blacksmith's work. There are many types of hammer used in a blacksmith's workshop but this will name just a few common ones. Hammers can range in shape and weight from half an ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work being done with it. Chisels are made of high carbon steel . They are hardened and tempered at

195-498: A blacksmith as such because they are too soft. A common term for a cast iron anvil is "ASO" or "Anvil Shaped Object". The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide what some call "rebound" as well as being hard and not denting easily from misplaced hammer blows. The term rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmith's hammer blows back into the metal thus moving more metal at once than if there were no rebound. A good anvil can project anywhere from 50 to 99% of

260-425: A burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: Kaowool ). The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of

325-446: A check on its rank classification Bituminous coal is dark brown to black, hard, but friable . It is commonly composed of thin bands of alternating bright and dull material. Though bituminous coal varies in its chemical composition, a typical composition is about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. Its bank density (the density of a coal seam prior to breaking up during mining)

390-460: A clean coal technology. Pig iron Pig iron , also known as crude iron , is an intermediate good used by the iron industry in the production of steel . It is developed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace . Pig iron has a high carbon content, typically 3.8–4.7 %, along with silica and other dross , which makes it brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications. The traditional shape of

455-663: A composition of about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. This implies that chemical processes during coalification remove most of the oxygen and much of the hydrogen, leaving carbon, a process called carbonization . During coalification, the maturing coal increases in carbon content, decreases in hydrogen and volatiles, increases in its heating value, and becomes darker and more lustrous. Chemical changes include dehydration (which removes oxygen and hydrogen as water), decarboxylation (which removes oxygen as carbon dioxide ), and demethanation (which removes hydrogen as methane ). By

520-416: A greater distance away from the hot metals. They are very useful and found throughout the world. Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal . It is not uncommon for a blacksmith to own twenty or more pairs of tongs; traditionally, a smith would start building their collection during

585-400: A high carbon content, and a low content of sulfur, phosphorus , and ash. The best unblended coking coal is high quality medium-volatile bituminous coal. However, since single coals with all the necessary properties are scarce, coking coal is usually a blend of high-volatile bituminous coal with lesser amounts of medium- and low-volatile bituminous coal. Smithing coal is bituminous coal of

650-423: A higher fixed carbon content is classified as anthracite, while agglomerating coal yielding less than 10,500 Btu/lb (24,400 kJ/kg) or nonagglomerating coal yielding less than 11,500 Btu/lb (26,700 kJ/kg) is classified as sub-bituminous coal. In the international market, bituminous coal is defined as coal with a vitrinite reflectance between 0.5 and 1.9. Vitrinite reflectance is also routinely measured for U.S. coal as

715-455: A higher price than other grades of bituminous coal (thermal coal) used for heating and power generation. Within the coal mining industry, this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp , a dangerous mixture of gases that can cause underground explosions. Extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring, good ventilation and vigilant site management. Bituminous coal

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780-413: A malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects ( hardening , annealing , and tempering as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: amount of air, the volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire. Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge: During operation, fuel

845-413: A relatively dirty fuel. The reduction in the use of bituminous coal between 1945 and 1960 is estimated to have saved at least 1,923 lives of all ages and 310 infant lives per winter month. Bituminous coal quality is improved with floatation methods, which increase the fraction of vitrinite to yield a cleaner-burning product. The bioconversion of bituminous coal to methane is being actively researched as

910-413: Is a particular rank of coal , as determined by the amount and type of carbon present in the coal and the amount of energy it can produce when burned. It is higher in rank than sub-bituminous coal but lower in rank than anthracite . Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank of coal. Coal rank is based on several characteristics of the coal. The fixed carbon content refers to the percentage of

975-422: Is a type of coal containing a tar -like substance called bitumen or asphalt. Its coloration can be black or sometimes dark brown; often there are well-defined bands of bright and dull material within the seams . It is typically hard but friable . Its quality is ranked higher than lignite and sub-bituminous coal , but lesser than anthracite . It is the most abundant rank of coal, with deposits found around

1040-420: Is about 1346 kg/m (84 lb/ft ) while the bulk density of extracted coal is up to 833 kg/m (52 lb/ft ). Bituminous coal characteristically burns with a smoky flame and softens and swells during combustion. It gets its name from this tendency to form a softened, sticky mass when heated, which reflects the presence of bitumen (mineral tar) in the coal. Though almost all agglomerating coal

1105-446: Is accompanied by peak methane generation. This makes these bituminous coals "gassy" and precautions must be taken against methane explosions. Imidazolium -based ionic liquid solvents can reduce spontaneous combustion, which accounts for 2 to 3 percent of global annual carbon dioxide emissions. Bituminous coal was once extensively used for home heating in the US. However, bituminous coal is

1170-445: Is based on vitrinite reflectance. This classification divides medium rank coal (approximately equivalent to bituminous coal) into four subranks. In order of increasing rank, these are: Bituminous coal is used primarily for electrical power generation and in the manufacture of steel . Coking coal ( metallurgical coal or "met coal") is used in the manufacture of steel . A good coking coal must have excellent agglomeration properties,

1235-458: Is composed mostly of nonspore algal remains. In the United States, bituminous coal is further divided into subranks based on its heating value and fixed carbon content. Thus bituminous coal is divided into high-, medium-, and low-volatile categories based on fixed carbon content, and high-volatile bituminous coal is further subdivided by energy content. ISO classification of bituminous coal

1300-511: Is found in the Appalachian and Interior Provinces of North America. Mining is done via both surface and underground mines. Historically, the many seams scattered over rugged terrain in the Appalachians have been conducive to mining by small companies, while the great extent and gentle dip of beds further west favors very large-scale operations. The Appalachian coal is notably low in sulfur and

1365-573: Is now part of Westphalia , Germany. It remains to be established whether these northern European developments were derived from the Chinese ones. Wagner has postulated a possible link via Persian contacts with China along the Silk Road and Viking contacts with Persia, but there is a chronological gap between the Viking period and Lapphyttan. Smelting and producing wrought iron were known in ancient Europe and

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1430-412: Is of bituminous rank, some bituminous coal is not agglomerating. Non-agglomerating bituminous coal includes cannel coal and boghead coal . These are nonbanded and nonreflective, and break with a conchoidal fracture. Both are sapropelic , in contrast with most bituminous coal, which is humic (composed of decayed woody tissue of plants). Cannel coal is composed mostly of plant spores, while boghead coal

1495-669: Is often of metallurgical grade, while the Interior Province coal is much higher in sulfur. The belt of Carboniferous coal fields extends into central Europe, and much of this is bituminous coal. Bituminous coal fields are found in Poland and the Czech Republic, and the Polish deposits are one of the most important of that nation's natural resources. The Czech deposits have been exploited since prehistoric times. The European deposits include

1560-424: Is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes fuel faster and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel). A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining

1625-486: Is refined into wrought iron . The anvil serves as a workbench to the blacksmith , where the metal to be forged is worked. Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith's needs. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some anvils are made of only cast iron and have no tool steel face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve

1690-487: Is submerged in standing water. The stagnant water excludes oxygen, creates an acidic environment, and slows decay. The dead plant material is converted to peat . Peat is mostly a mixture of cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin that originally made up the woody tissue of the plants. Lignin has a weight composition of about 54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 30% oxygen, while cellulose has a weight composition of about 44% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 49% oxygen. Bituminous coal has

1755-408: Is usually a large container full of water used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. The slack tub is principally used to cool parts of the work during forging (to protect them, or keep the metal in one area from "spreading" for example, nearby hammer blows); to harden the steel; to tend a coal or charcoal forge; and simply to cool the work quickly for easy inspection. In bladesmithing and tool-making

1820-562: The Coal Measures of Britain, which account for most of Britain's coal production and which are mostly bituminous coal. The Westfield coal basin is the largest in Britain. Other significant bituminous coal deposits are found through much of Europe, including France, Germany, and northern Italy. Coal deposition was interrupted by the Permian-Triassic extinction event , but resumed later in

1885-638: The Gates Formation . The Intermontane and Insular Coalfields of British Columbia also contain deposits of Cretaceous bituminous coal. As of 2009 , the countries with the greatest estimated ultimately recoverable resources of bituminous coal were the US, 161.6 Gt ; India, 99.7 Gt; China, 78.4 Gt; Australia, 51.3 Gt; South Africa, 38.7 Gt; the UK, 26.8 Gt; Germany, 25.2 Gt; Colombia, 7.8 Gt; Indonesia, 5.6 Gt; and France, 4.4 Gt As of 2018 , total world production of bituminous coal (coking coal plus other bituminous coal)

1950-737: The Middle Triassic . Extensive bituminous coal deposits of Permian age are found in Siberia, east Asia, and Australia. These include the Minusinsky coal basin in Siberia, the Queensland , Bowen , and Sydney Basins in Australia, and the extensive bituminous coal reserves of China. A second peak in coal deposition began in the Cretaceous , though most of this is lower rank coal rather than bituminous. In

2015-492: The Venturi effect . Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch . A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick . The primary advantage of a gas forge is the ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and

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2080-419: The steel mill in mostly liquid form; in this state, the pig iron was referred to as hot metal . The hot metal was then poured into a steelmaking vessel to produce steel , typically an electric arc furnace , induction furnace or basic oxygen furnace , where the excess carbon is burned off and the alloy composition controlled. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge , the puddling furnace ,

2145-469: The Earth's geologic history. Vast deposits of coal formed in wetlands —called coal forests —that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) and Permian times. Bituminous coal is predominantly Carboniferous in age. Most bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 and 300 million years old. Vast deposits of bituminous coal of Pennsylvanian age

2210-478: The Middle East, but it was produced in bloomeries by direct reduction . Small prills of pig iron dispersed in slag are produced in all iron furnaces, but the operator of a bloomery had to avoid conditions causing the phase transition of the iron into liquid in the furnace, as the prill globules or any resulting pig iron are not malleable so can't be hammered in a single piece. Alternatively, decarburizing

2275-676: The United States, Cretaceous bituminous coals occur in Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. In Canada, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin of Alberta and British Columbia hosts major deposits of bituminous coal that formed in swamps along the western margin of the Western Interior Seaway . They range in age from latest Jurassic or earliest Cretaceous in the Mist Mountain Formation , to Late Cretaceous in

2340-407: The apprenticeship. There are various types of tongs available in the market. (1) flat tong (2) rivet or ring tong (3) straight lip fluted tong (4) gad tong Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on

2405-483: The bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that fits in a hardy hole. There are many different kinds of hardy tools such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to list. A slack tub

2470-413: The coal is. It is determined by how much of the carbon has condensed to an aromatic form from the heat and pressure of deep burial. In the United States, bituminous coal is defined as agglomerating coal yielding at least 10,500 Btu /lb (24,400 kJ/kg) of energy on combustion (on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis), with a fixed carbon content less than 86% (on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis.) Coal with

2535-549: The coal reaches temperatures above about 235 °C (455 °F), bitumen breaks down ( debituminization ) and the coal matures to anthracite. Coal deposits are widely distributed worldwide, and range in age from the Devonian (about 360 to 420 million years ago) to Neogene deposits just a few million years old. However, 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods , which represent just 2% of

2600-445: The coal that is neither moisture, nor ash, nor volatile matter. When evaluated on a dry, mineral-matter-free basis, the fixed carbon content is the fraction of the coal that is not volatile organic matter. An agglomerating coal is a coal that softens when heated, forming a hard, gray, porous coke that resists crushing. Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of how reflective a polished surface of an average particle of vitrinite in

2665-417: The cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually, hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels. Also, many smiths shape chisels as to have a simple twisted handle as to resemble a hammer, they can be used at

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2730-549: The dies have many aspects to them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location. The materials must also be selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things. The most common materials used for

2795-511: The dissolved impurities (such as silicon) to be thoroughly oxidized. An intermediate product of puddling is known as refined pig iron , finers metal , or refined iron . Pig iron can also be used to produce gray iron . This is achieved by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of steel and scrap iron, removing undesirable contaminants, adding alloys, and adjusting the carbon content. Ductile iron can also be produced using certain high purity grades of pig iron; depending on

2860-550: The drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer. These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die forging. The designs for

2925-432: The energy back into the workpiece. The flat top, called the "face" is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have more or less depending on the design). The square hole is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy tool fits. There are many different kinds of hardy tools. The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools similar to how

2990-407: The fire is handled differently. Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it. A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and

3055-417: The fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge- welding , but a well-designed gas forge is hot enough for any task. A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron

3120-414: The grade of ductile iron being produced, the pig irons chosen may be low in the elements silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus. High purity pig iron is used to dilute any elements in a ductile iron charge which may be harmful to the ductile iron process (except carbon). Pig iron was historically poured directly out of the bottom of the blast furnace through a trough into a ladle car for transfer to

3185-403: The hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360-degree angle such as a hold-down tool for when the blacksmith's tongs cannot hold a workpiece as securely as it needs to be. On the front of the anvil, there is sometimes a "horn" that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks. Between the horn and the anvil face, there is often a small area called a "step" or

3250-402: The heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart. The smith can also adjust

3315-437: The heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities. Typically only one die is needed to completely form the part. Extra space between the die faces causes some of the material to be pressed out of the sides, forming flash . This acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves and is later trimmed off of the finished part. The equipment used in

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3380-569: The highest quality, as free of ash and sulfur as possible, used to manufacture coke for use by blacksmiths . Coking coal commands a higher price than coal used for energy production. As of 2020 , coking coal in the U.S. sold for about $ 127/ short ton , compared with $ 50.05/short ton for bituminous coal generally. The cost of coking coal is about 3.5 times as high as the cost of coal used for electrical power (which includes lower ranks of coal, such sub-bituminous coal and lignite , as well as noncoking bituminous coal.) Bituminous coal which lacks

3445-423: The length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a ' backdraft ' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal),

3510-405: The molds used for pig iron ingots is a branching structure formed in sand , with many individual ingots at right angles to a central channel or "runner", resembling a litter of piglets being nursed by a sow . When the metal had cooled and hardened, the smaller ingots (the "pigs") were simply broken from the runner (the "sow"), hence the name "pig iron". As pig iron is intended for remelting,

3575-552: The nature of the original plant material, nor the length of burial is nearly as important. The temperature range for maturation of bituminous coal is from 85 to 235 °C (185 to 455 °F). The bitumen that characterizes bituminous coal forms under approximately the same conditions at which petroleum is formed in petroleum source rocks. Bituminization is accompanied by peak methane generation in medium to low volatile bituminous coal. This makes these bituminous coals "gassy" and precautions must be taken against methane explosions. If

3640-535: The pig iron into steel was an extremely tedious process using medieval technology, so in Europe before the Middle Ages the prills were discarded with the slag. Traditionally, pig iron was worked into wrought iron in finery forges , later puddling furnaces , and more recently, into steel . In these processes, pig iron is melted and a strong current of air is directed over it while it is stirred or agitated. This causes

3705-665: The qualities required for use as metallurgical coal is graded as thermal coal. This is used primarily for electrical power generation. The ideal thermal coal is easily ignited but has a high heat content. Bituminous coal is used for the production of activated carbon . The coal is first coked, removing volatiles, then steam treated to activate it. Chemical processes for activating coke produced from bituminous coal have also been investigated. Like other ranks of coal, bituminous coal forms from thick accumulations of dead plant material that are buried faster than they can decay. This usually takes place in peat bogs , where falling plant debris

3770-411: The shape of the fire. In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centred in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by

3835-399: The structural element of graphite . This is accompanied by an increase in vitrinite reflectance, used to assess coal rank. During coalification, the pressure of burial reduces the volume of the original peat by a factor of 30 as it is converted to coal. However, the increase in rank of maturing coal mostly reflects the maximum temperature the coal reaches. Neither the maximum pressure, nor

3900-402: The term will usually be changed to a "quench tank" because oil or brine is used to cool the metal. The term slack is believed to derive from the word "slake", as in slaking the heat. Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the workpiece. The workpiece is placed into the forge. Then the impact of a hammer causes

3965-659: The time the coal reaches bituminous rank, most dehydration and decarboxylation has already taken place, and maturation of bituminous coal is characterized by demethanation. During coalification at bituminous rank, coal approaches its maximum heating value and begins to lose most of its volatile content. As carbonization proceeds, aliphatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by chains of carbon atoms) are replaced by aromatic compounds (carbon compounds characterized by rings of carbon atoms) and aromatic rings begin to fuse into polyaromatic compounds (linked rings of carbon atoms). The structure increasingly resembles graphene ,

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4030-596: The tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, nickel-based alloys. The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminium, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs poorly as a drop forging material. Various gods and goddesses are associated with the forge in a number of mythologies, such as the Irish Brigid , West African Ogun , Greek Hephaestus and Roman Vulcan . Bituminous coal Bituminous coal , or black coal ,

4095-512: The uneven size of the ingots and the inclusion of small amounts of sand are insignificant issues when compared to the ease of casting and handling. The Chinese were already making pig iron during the later Zhou dynasty (which ended in 256 BC). Furnaces such as Lapphyttan in Sweden may date back as far back as the 12th century; and some in the County of Mark dating back to the 13th century, which

4160-420: The world, often in rocks of Carboniferous age. Bituminous coal is formed from sub-bituminous coal that is buried deeply enough to be heated to 85 °C (185 °F) or higher. Bituminous coal is used primarily for electrical power generation and in the steel industry . Bituminous coal suitable for smelting iron ( coking coal or metallurgical coal ) must be low in sulfur and phosphorus . It commands

4225-444: Was 6.220 Gt. The leading producer is China, with India and the United States a distant second and third. U.S. production of bituminous coal was 238 million short tons in 2020 and represented 44% of all U.S. coal production. Bituminous coal is mined in 18 states, but the five states of West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Kentucky, and Indiana produce 74%of U.S. coal. Maturation of bituminous coal at medium and low volatile subrank

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