166-468: Gerald Ford 's tenure as the 38th president of the United States began on August 9, 1974, upon the resignation of President Richard Nixon , and ended on January 20, 1977. Ford, a Republican from Michigan , had been appointed vice president on December 6, 1973, following the resignation of Spiro Agnew from that office. Ford was the only person to serve as president without being elected to either
332-454: A deficit every year Ford was president. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting , Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" according to
498-475: A $ 722 million aid package for South Vietnam, funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin. Senator Jacob K. Javits offered "...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid". Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country. Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave
664-575: A Congress counts against that total. A longer term for the task force would cause the Judiciary Committee to exceed this limit. Chairman: Adam Schiff (D-CA) Ranking member: Bob Goodlatte (R-VA) Established in September 2008, the Judicial Task force on Judicial Impeachment was to look into charges against District Judge Thomas Porteous . The investigation was not completed by the end of
830-633: A Grand Rapids law practice with a friend, Philip W. Buchen . Following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor , Ford enlisted in the Navy. He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942. On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland . After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina , where he
996-457: A Nixon slush fund during his 1970 Senate campaign. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, including Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. He was sworn in as
1162-503: A boon to Ford's poll numbers; Senator Barry Goldwater declared that the operation "shows we've still got balls in this country." Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot. But work by Andrew Gawthorpe, published in 2009, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that
1328-990: A candidate in the 2020 special election held to replace retiring U.S. Senator Johnny Isakson . Under House Republican rules, members must relinquish leadership positions if they launch a bid for another office. Collins was succeeded as ranking member by Jordan, who represents Ohio's 4th congressional district , but who has never taken a bar examination or practiced law. Resolutions electing members: H.Res. 14 (Chair), H.Res. 15 (Ranking Member), H.Res. 70 (R), H.Res. 71 (D), H.Res. 502 (D), H.Res. 908 (R), H.Res. 1431 (García) Sources: H.Res. 24 (Chair), H.Res. 25 (Ranking Member), H.Res. 46 (D), H.Res. 68 (R), H.Res. 903 (R), H.Res. 1037 (R) Sources: H.Res. 6 (Chair), H.Res. 45 (D), H.Res. 51 (R) and H.Res. 95 (D) Sources: Sources: Chairman: Jim Sensenbrenner (R-WI); Ranking member: John Conyers (D-MI) The Antitrust Task Force during
1494-593: A crisis with the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , which took place following the Greek -backed 1974 Cypriot coup d'état . The dispute put the United States in a difficult position as both Greece and Turkey were members of NATO . In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September 1974, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford vetoed
1660-453: A decline in the faith that Americans placed in political institutions. Low public confidence added to Ford's already formidable challenge of establishing his own administration without a presidential transition period or the popular mandate of a presidential election. Though Ford became widely popular during his first month in office, he faced a difficult situation regarding the fate of former President Nixon, whose status threatened to undermine
1826-444: A dismal economic growth rate, such as tax cuts and increased spending, risked exacerbating inflation. The conventional response to inflation, tax increases and a cut in government spending, risked damaging the economy. The economic troubles, which signaled the end of the post-war boom , created an opening for a challenge to the dominant Keynesian economics , and laissez-faire advocates such as Alan Greenspan acquired influence within
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#17328524354031992-526: A follower of Charles Manson , pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford. As Fromme pulled the trigger, Larry Buendorf , a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun, and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009. Gerald Ford Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr. ; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006)
2158-577: A half years, on February 1, 1917, Gardner married Gerald Rudolff Ford , a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company. Though never formally adopted, her young son was referred to as Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr. from then on; the name change , including the anglicized spelling "Rudolph", was formalized on December 3, 1935. He was raised in what is now East Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mother's second marriage: Thomas Gardner "Tom" Ford (1918–1995), Richard Addison "Dick" Ford (1924–2015), and James Francis "Jim" Ford (1927–2001). Ford
2324-544: A highly strategic location near vital shipping lanes. In 1975, the left-wing Fretilin party seized power after a civil war in East Timor (now Timor-Leste), a former colony of Portugal that shared the island of Timor with the Indonesian region of West Timor . Indonesian leaders feared that East Timor would serve as a hostile left-wing base that would promote secessionist movements inside Indonesia. Anti-Fretilin activists from
2490-454: A history of hitting his mother. In a biography of Ford, James M. Cannon wrote that the separation and divorce of Ford's parents was sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidants that his father had first hit his mother when she had smiled at another man during their honeymoon. After living with her parents for two and
2656-602: A joint surprise attack against Israel , seeking to re-take land lost in the Six-Day War of 1967. However, early Arab success gave way to an Israel military victory in what became known as the Yom Kippur War . Although an initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. Ford disliked what he saw as Israeli "stalling" on
2822-600: A negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career." Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee . Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy." He voted in favor of
2988-471: A new minority leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as minority leader. The members of the Republican caucus that encouraged and eventually endorsed Ford to run as the House minority leader were later known as the " Young Turks ". One of
3154-412: A pardon, but he came to believe that ongoing legal proceedings against Nixon would prevent his administration from addressing any other issue. Ford attempted to extract a public statement of contrition from Nixon before issuing the pardon, but Nixon refused. On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311 , which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against
3320-461: A peace agreement, and wrote, "[Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell." During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , which included: I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of
3486-545: A plan that implemented deeper tax cuts and an increase in government spending. Ford seriously considered vetoing the bill, but ultimately chose to sign the Tax Reduction Act of 1975 into law. In October 1975, Ford introduced a bill designed to combat inflation through a mix of tax and spending cuts. That December, Ford signed the Revenue Adjustment Act of 1975, which implemented tax and spending cuts, albeit not at
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#17328524354033652-620: A portion of the text of Burdick v. United States , a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt. In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon. In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to
3818-520: A real shock" when seventy-six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be "responsive" to Israel's request for $ 2.59 billion in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives. The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills". After much bargaining,
3984-518: A report of all of the CIA's domestic activities, and much of the report became public, beginning with the publication of a December 1974 article by investigative journalist Seymour Hersh . The revelations sparked outrage among the public and members of Congress. In response to growing pressure to investigate and reform the CIA, Ford created the Rockefeller Commission . The Rockefeller Commission marked
4150-515: A resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house. ' " When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford automatically assumed the presidency, taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House. This made him
4316-484: A scoreless tie in the first half. After the game, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said, "When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense." Ford later recalled, "During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face
4482-503: A short list of potential Supreme Court nominees, and Levi suggested Stevens, Solicitor General Robert Bork , and federal judge Arlin Adams . Ford chose Stevens, an uncontroversial federal appellate judge, largely because he was likely to face the least opposition in the Senate. Early in his tenure on the Court, Stevens had a relatively moderate voting record, but in the 1990s he emerged as a leader of
4648-732: A speech at Tulane University , announcing that the Vietnam War was over "...as far as America is concerned". With the North Vietnamese forces advancing on the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon , Ford ordered the evacuation of U.S. personnel, while also allowing U.S. forces to aid others who wished to escape from the Communist advance. Forty-thousand U.S. citizens and South Vietnamese were evacuated by plane until enemy attacks made further such evacuations impossible. In Operation Frequent Wind ,
4814-459: A tax cut designed to rejuvenate the economy, and he signed two tax reduction acts into law. The foreign policy of the Ford administration was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president. Overcoming significant congressional opposition, Ford continued Nixon's détente policies with the Soviet Union . In
4980-420: A temporary subcommittee to examine the pending merger between XM Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio . The task force operated like any other subcommittee, except that it only has a six-month term. House Rules limit each full committee to just five subcommittees, and any task force, special subcommittee, or other subunit of a standing committee that is established for a cumulative period longer than six months in
5146-427: A tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds." His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, "They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause." During Ford's senior year, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech said that it would not play a scheduled game with Michigan if a Black player named Willis Ward took
Presidency of Gerald Ford - Misplaced Pages Continue
5312-547: Is generally ranked as a below average president, much like both his predecessor and successor. The Republican ticket of President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew won a landslide victory in the 1972 presidential election . Nixon's second term was dominated by the Watergate scandal , which stemmed from a Nixon campaign group's attempted burglary of the Democratic National Committee 's headquarters and
5478-419: Is often involved in the impeachment process against federal officials. Because of the legal nature of its oversight, committee members usually have a legal background, but this is not required. In the 118th Congress , the chairman of the committee is Republican Jim Jordan of Ohio , and the ranking minority member is Democrat Jerry Nadler of New York . The committee was created on June 3, 1813, for
5644-604: The 1976 Republican presidential primary , he defeated Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic candidate, Jimmy Carter . Ford remains the only person to serve as president without winning an election for president or vice president. Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party, but his moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of
5810-458: The 1976 presidential election , an observation with which Ford agreed. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence". On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before
5976-613: The Carter administration . When Ford assumed office, he inherited Nixon's Cabinet . During his brief administration, he replaced all members except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon . Political commentators have referred to Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 as the " Halloween Massacre ". One of Ford's appointees, William Coleman —the Secretary of Transportation —was
6142-643: The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 , 1960 , 1964 , and 1968 , as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman". In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House , which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be
6308-572: The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a proposed constitutional amendment that had been submitted to the states for ratification in 1972. The ERA was designed to ensure equal rights for all citizens regardless of gender. Despite Ford's support, the ERA would fail to win ratification by the necessary number of state legislatures. As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of
6474-829: The Gilbert Islands , Bismarck Archipelago , Marshall Islands, Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids, Hollandia , Marianas, Western Carolines, Western New Guinea, and the Leyte Operation), the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars (for Leyte and Mindoro), and the World War II Victory Medal . He was honorably discharged in February 1946. After Ford returned to Grand Rapids in 1946, he became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to challenge Bartel J. Jonkman ,
6640-450: The House elections , taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one more than the number needed (290) for a two-thirds majority, the number necessary to override a presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment. Perhaps due in part to this fact, the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson
6806-541: The House of Representatives . In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president." When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent Fred Barnes recalled that he replied "I just can't bring myself to do it." After Ford left the White House in January 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet
Presidency of Gerald Ford - Misplaced Pages Continue
6972-660: The Marianas , Western Carolines , and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After an overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island , participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus , and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro . Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces,
7138-422: The Monterey was one of several ships damaged by Typhoon Cobra that hit Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet on December 18–19, 1944. The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon. The Monterey was damaged by a fire, which was started by several of the ship's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck . Ford was serving as General Quarters Officer of
7304-592: The National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969 . Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act. Passed in 1972, the act established a revenue sharing program for state and local governments. Ford's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress, and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported
7470-579: The Paris Peace Accords , signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease fire across both North and South Vietnam , and required the release of American prisoners of war . The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954 , called for national elections in the North and South. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in
7636-539: The Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) between Egypt and Israel was formally signed, and aid resumed. A civil war broke out in Angola after the fledgling African nation gained independence from Portugal in 1975. The Soviet Union and Cuba both became heavily involved in the conflict, backing the left-wing MPLA , one of the major factions in the civil war. In response, the CIA directed aid to two other factions in
7802-558: The Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War . In doing so, he overcame opposition from members of Congress, an institution which became increasingly assertive in foreign affairs in the early 1970s. This opposition was led by Senator Henry M. Jackson , who scuttled a U.S.–Soviet trade agreement by winning passage of the Jackson–Vanik amendment . The thawing relationship with China brought about by Nixon's 1972 visit to China
7968-534: The University of Michigan , where he played center and linebacker for the school's football team and helped the Wolverines to two undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933 . In his senior year of 1934 , the team suffered a steep decline and won only one game, but Ford was still the team's star player. In one of those games, Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota —the eventual national champion—to
8134-484: The University of Michigan , where he played for the school's football team , before eventually attending Yale Law School . Afterward, he served in the U.S. Naval Reserve from 1942 to 1946. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district , serving in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the House minority leader . In December 1973, two months after Spiro Agnew 's resignation, Ford became
8300-468: The Watergate scandal . Foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president. Ford signed the Helsinki Accords , which marked a move toward détente in the Cold War . With the collapse of South Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War essentially ended. In
8466-423: The apartheid regime of South Africa 's nuclear weapons program . By this point, however, the program was highly advanced, and this policy shift was, by this point, too late in time to significantly stall the apartheid regime's ultimate goal of developing a nuclear deterrent. U.S. policy since the 1940s has been to support Indonesia , which hosted American investments in petroleum and raw materials and controlled
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#17328524354038632-589: The assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald . He and Earl Warren also interviewed Jack Ruby , Oswald's killer. According to a 1963 FBI memo that was released to the public in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, Cartha DeLoach , about
8798-570: The " Halloween Massacre ". Ford appointed George H. W. Bush as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency , while Rumsfeld became Secretary of Defense and Cheney replaced Rumsfeld as Chief of Staff, becoming the youngest individual to hold that position. The moves were intended to fortify Ford's right flank against a primary challenge from Ronald Reagan. Though Kissinger remained as Secretary of State, Brent Scowcroft replaced Kissinger as National Security Advisor. Ford's accession to
8964-525: The 108th Congress existed from March 26, 2003, to September 26, 2003. All Judiciary Committee Members also served as members of the Task Force, and conducted hearings and investigations into consolidation of the Bell Telephone Companies. Chairman: John Conyers (D-MI); Ranking member: Steve Chabot (R-OH) The Antitrust Task Force during the 110th Congress was established February 28, 2007, as
9130-573: The 1939 Neutrality Act . The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee , a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II . His introduction into politics was in the summer of 1940 when he worked for the Republican presidential campaign of Wendell Willkie . Ford graduated in the top third of his class in 1941, and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter. In May 1941, he opened
9296-699: The 1975 fiscal year and $ 73.7 billion for 1976. United States House Committee on the Judiciary The U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary , also called the House Judiciary Committee , is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives . It is charged with overseeing the administration of justice within the federal courts , federal administrative agencies, and federal law enforcement entities. The Judiciary Committee
9462-407: The 1976 presidential election, Ford was challenged by Ronald Reagan , a leader of the conservative wing of the Republican Party. After a contentious series of primaries , Ford narrowly won the nomination at the 1976 Republican National Convention . In the general election, Ford lost to Carter by a narrow margin in the popular and electoral vote. In polls of historians and political scientists , Ford
9628-587: The 435 seats. Even Ford's former House seat was won by a Democrat. In the Senate elections , the Democrats increased their majority to 61 seats in the 100-seat body. The subsequent 94th Congress would override the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson served as president in the 1860s. Ford's successful vetoes, however, resulted in the lowest yearly spending increases since the Eisenhower administration. Buoyed by
9794-524: The 50 States to make the choice". This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade , which he opposed. Ford came under criticism for a 60 Minutes interview his wife Betty gave in 1975 , in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a "great, great decision". During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice . After the 1972 elections, good government groups like Common Cause pressured Congress to amend campaign finance law to restrict
9960-534: The CIA's assassination plots. The Senate created its own committee, led by Senator Frank Church , to investigate CIA abuses. Ford feared that the Church Committee would be used for partisan purposes and resisted turning over classified materials, but Colby cooperated with the committee. In response to the Church Committee's report, both houses of Congress established select committees to provide oversight to
10126-619: The Court's liberal bloc. In 2005 Ford wrote, "I am prepared to allow history's judgment of my term in office to rest (if necessary, exclusively) on my nomination 30 years ago of Justice John Paul Stevens to the U.S. Supreme Court". Ford also appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts . Along with the experience of the Vietnam War and other issues, Watergate contributed to
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#173285243540310292-603: The Deck and was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart H. Ingersoll . The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again. After the fire, the Monterey was declared unfit for service. Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary's College of California , where he
10458-406: The Fall of Saigon, and Vietnam was reunified into one country. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act . The 1975 act appropriated $ 455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees. In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in
10624-443: The Ford administration. Ford seized the initiative, abandoned 40 years of orthodoxy, and introduced a new conservative economic agenda as he sought to adapt traditional Republican economics to deal with the novel economic challenges. At the time that he took office, Ford believed that inflation, rather than a potential recession, represented the greatest threat to the economy. He believed that inflation could be reduced, not by reducing
10790-426: The Ford administration. In the final days of Nixon's presidency, Haig had floated the possibility of Ford pardoning Nixon, but no deal had been struck between Nixon and Ford before Nixon's resignation. Nonetheless, when Ford took office, most of the Nixon holdovers in the executive branch, including Haig and Kissinger, pressed for a pardon. Through his first month in office, Ford publicly kept his options open regarding
10956-484: The Helsinki Accords, which had the impact of overall weakening his foreign-policy stature. Though Ford was criticized for his apparent recognition of the Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, the new emphasis on human rights would eventually contribute to the weakening of the Eastern bloc in the 1980s and speed up its collapse in 1989. One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the ongoing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with
11122-399: The House and Senate. Some, including Barry Goldwater , voted against him. On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311 , which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that
11288-455: The Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must." Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a " corrupt bargain " had been struck between the two men, in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to
11454-424: The November 1974 Vladivostok Summit , at which point the two leaders agreed to a framework for another SALT treaty. Opponents of détente, led by Jackson, delayed Senate consideration of the treaty until after Ford left office. When Ford took office in August 1974, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) negotiations had been underway in Helsinki, Finland , for nearly two years. Throughout much of
11620-432: The Supreme Court ordered Nixon to turn over recordings of certain meetings he had held as president, the House Judiciary Committee voted to begin impeachment proceedings against Nixon . After the tapes became public and clearly showed that Nixon had taken part in the cover-up, Nixon summoned Ford to the Oval Office on August 8, where Nixon informed Ford that he would resign. Nixon formally resigned on August 9, making Ford
11786-432: The U.S. economy had entered into a period of stagflation , which economists attributed to various causes, including the 1973 oil crisis and increasing competition from countries such as Japan. Stagflation confounded the traditional economic theories of the 1970s, as economists generally believed that an economy would not simultaneously experience inflation and low rates of economic growth. Traditional economic remedies for
11952-595: The United States Supreme Court ruled in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education that "Busing was a permissible tool for desegregation purposes." However, in the closing days of the Nixon administration, the Supreme Court largely eliminated District Court ability to order busing across city and suburban systems in the case of Milliken v. Bradley . It meant that disgruntled white families could move to
12118-511: The United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military. The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a presidential pardon and a change in military discharge status. Full pardon for draft dodgers came in
12284-504: The United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must." The Nixon pardon was highly controversial, and Gallup polling showed that Ford's approval rating fell from 71 percent before
12450-540: The United States. Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" upon signing the bill. Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic . In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that "swine flu"
12616-589: The administration policies in the Middle East. "Reassessment", in practical terms, meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was "an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations". The announced reassessments upset many American supporters of Israel. On May 21, Ford "experienced
12782-568: The agreement would mean the acceptance of Soviet domination over Eastern Europe and the permanent incorporation of the Baltic states into the USSR. Shortly before President Ford departed for Helsinki, he held a meeting with a delegation of Americans of Eastern European background, and stated definitively that U.S. policy on the Baltic States would not change, but would be strengthened since the agreement denies
12948-479: The amount of new currency entering circulation, but by encouraging people to reduce their spending. In October 1974, Ford went before the American public and asked them to " W hip I nflation N ow". As part of this program, he urged people to wear " WIN " buttons. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption, especially with regards to gasoline . Ford hoped that
13114-542: The annexation of territory in violation of international law and allows for the peaceful change of borders. The American public remained unconvinced that American policy on the incorporation of the Baltic States would not be changed by the Helsinki Final Act. Despite protests from all around, Ford decided to move forward and sign the Helsinki Agreement. As domestic criticism mounted, Ford hedged on his support for
13280-401: The bill due to concerns regarding its effect on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year. As Ford expected, Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978 . In 1973, Egypt and Syria had launched
13446-539: The bill with 223 votes in favor (compared with 185 against). During the eight years (1965–1973) that Ford served as minority leader, he received many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality. For the past decade, Ford had been unsuccessfully working to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber so that he could become House Speaker . He promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976. However, on October 10, 1973, Spiro Agnew resigned from
13612-496: The blessing of the Ford family, it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13. Throughout life, Ford remained interested in his school and football; he occasionally attended games. Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices; at one point, he asked to join
13778-451: The boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University and applied to its law school. Ford hoped to attend Yale Law School beginning in 1935. Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities. He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School . That year he
13944-608: The carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng , Papua New Guinea in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in
14110-445: The clemency required a reaffirmation of allegiance to the United States and two years of work in a public service position. The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a presidential pardon and a change in military discharge status. Ford's clemency program was accepted by most conservatives, but attacked by those on
14276-418: The condition that the city agree to more austere budgets imposed by Washington, D.C. In December 1975, Ford signed a bill providing New York City with access to $ 2.3 billion in loans. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting , Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout
14442-502: The country for Canada , but others remained in the United States. Ford had opposed any form of amnesty for the draft dodgers while in Congress, but his presidential advisers convinced him that a clemency program would help resolve a contentious issue and boost Ford's public standing. On September 16, 1974, shortly after he announced the Nixon pardon, Ford introduced a presidential clemency program for Vietnam War draft dodgers. The conditions of
14608-520: The country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression . In November 1974, Ford withdrew his proposed tax increase. Two months later, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $ 16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation. Having switched from advocating for a tax increase to advocating a tax reduction in just two months, Ford was greatly criticized for his "flip-flop". Congress responded by passing
14774-459: The crew from an island where the crew was believed to be held, but the Marines met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the crew were being released. In the operation, three military transport helicopters were shot down and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed. Despite American losses, the rescue operation proved to be
14940-526: The degree of influence they had held prior to World War II . Levi, Secretary of State and National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger , Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon , and Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger all emerged as influential cabinet officials early in Ford's tenure. Most of the Nixon holdovers in cabinet stayed in place until Ford's dramatic reorganization in the fall of 1975, an action referred to by political commentators as
15106-579: The disclosure of nearly all campaign contributions. Ford reluctantly signed the bill into law in October 1974. In the 1976 case of Buckley v. Valeo , the Supreme Court overturned the cap on self-funding by political candidates, holding that such a restriction violated freedom of speech rights. The campaign finance reforms of the 1970s were largely unsuccessful in lessening the influence of money in politics, as more contributions shifted to political action committees and state and local party committees. In 1971,
15272-501: The factories where they worked. Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory. Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding Michigan's 5th congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in The New York Times described him, Ford "saw himself as
15438-548: The federal courts, most notably in the 1976 Supreme Court decision of Kleppe v. New Mexico . Ford's successes included the addition of two national monuments, six historical sites, three historic parks and two national preserves. None were controversial. In the international field, treaties and agreements with Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, the Soviet Union and several European countries included provisions to protect endangered species. Ford and his wife were outspoken supporters of
15604-404: The field. Students, players and alumni protested, but university officials capitulated and kept Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team, and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but he eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play. In 1934, Ford
15770-434: The fighting or from executions or starvation. Upwards of half of the population of East Timor became refugees fleeing Fretilin-controlled areas between 1975 and 1981. Later, after international intervention in the 1999 East Timorese crisis , East Timor became an independent nation in 2002. Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California , on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme ,
15936-540: The final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement, but was pressured by Nixon and Kissinger into signing the agreement. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords. Fighting in Vietnam continued after the withdrawal of most U.S. forces in early 1973. As North Vietnamese forces advanced in early 1975, Ford requested Congress approve
16102-407: The final phase of the evacuation preceding the fall of Saigon on April 30, military and Air America helicopters took evacuees to off-shore U.S. Navy vessels. During the operation, so many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the vessels taking the evacuees that some were pushed overboard to make room for more people. The Vietnam War, which had raged since the 1950s, finally came to an end with
16268-694: The first President of the United States who had not been elected as either president or vice president. Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House, Ford spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation. Ford noted the peculiarity of his position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers." He went on to state: I have not sought this enormous responsibility, but I will not shirk it. Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends. They were of both parties, elected by all
16434-483: The first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment . After the subsequent resignation of Nixon in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression , with growing inflation and a recession . In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a presidential pardon to Nixon for his role in
16600-586: The first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history. In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States
16766-454: The first time that a presidential commission was established to investigate the national security apparatus. The Rockefeller Commission's report, submitted in June 1975, generally defended the CIA, although it did note that "the CIA has engaged in some activities that should be criticized and not permitted to happen again." The press strongly criticized the commission for failing to include a section on
16932-496: The first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. On December 6, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. After the confirmation vote in the House, Ford took the oath of office as vice president. Ford became vice president as the Watergate scandal was unfolding. On August 1, 1974, Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for
17098-457: The floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion. The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played "too much football without a helmet". As minority leader in the House, Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen , in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson's policies. Many in
17264-591: The former president privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States , a 1915 Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt. During the Vietnam War, about one percent of American men of eligible age for the draft failed to register, and approximately one percent of those who were drafted refused to serve. Those who refused conscription were labeled as " draft dodgers "; many such individuals had left
17430-464: The head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives". On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission , a special task force set up to investigate
17596-425: The incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. "I came back a converted internationalist ", Ford wrote, "and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist . And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one." During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left
17762-529: The infant Ford with her to Oak Park, Illinois , where her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, Clarence Haskins James lived. From there, she moved to the home of her parents in Grand Rapids, Michigan . Gardner and King divorced in December 1913, and she gained full custody of her son. Ford's paternal grandfather paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930. Ford later said that his biological father had
17928-525: The intelligence community. Due to the frustration of environmentalists left over from the Nixon days, including Environmental Protection Agency head Russell E. Train , environmentalism was a peripheral issue during the Ford years. Secretary of the Interior Thomas S. Kleppe was a leader of the " Sagebrush Rebellion ", a movement of western ranchers and other groups that sought the repeal of environmental protections on federal land. They lost repeatedly in
18094-480: The left who wanted a full amnesty program. Full pardon for draft dodgers would later come in the Carter Administration . The 1974 congressional midterm elections took place less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House of Representatives elections , taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of
18260-450: The levels proposed by Ford. The economy recovered in 1976, as both inflation and unemployment declined. Nonetheless, by late 1976 Ford faced considerable discontent over his handling of the economy, and the government had a $ 74 billion deficit. Prior to Ford's presidency, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had illegally assembled files on domestic anti-war activists. In the aftermath of Watergate, CIA Director William Colby put together
18426-478: The members of the Young Turks was congressman Donald H. Rumsfeld from Illinois's 13th congressional district , who later on would serve in Ford's administration as the chief of staff and secretary of defense . With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the " Great Society ". During
18592-462: The most easily confirmed of the prominent Republican leaders. Ford was confirmed by overwhelming majorities in both houses of Congress , and he took office as vice president in December 1973. In the months after his confirmation as vice president, Ford continued to support Nixon's innocence with regards to Watergate, even as evidence mounted that the Nixon administration had ordered the break-in and subsequently sought to cover it up. In July 1974, after
18758-545: The most influential people in the Ford administration. Ford also appointed Edward H. Levi as Attorney General, charging Levi with cleaning up a Justice Department that had been politicized to unprecedented levels during the Nixon administration. Ford brought in Philip W. Buchen , Robert T. Hartmann , L. William Seidman , and John O. Marsh as senior advisers with cabinet rank. Ford placed a far greater value in his cabinet officials than Nixon had, though cabinet members did not regain
18924-518: The nation's 41st vice president on December 19, 1974. Prior to Rockefeller's confirmation, Speaker of the House Carl Albert was next in line to the presidency . Ford promised to give Rockefeller a major role in shaping the domestic policy of the administration, but Rockefeller was quickly sidelined by Rumsfeld and other administration officials. In the wake of Nixon's heavy use of executive privilege to block investigations of his actions, Ford
19090-407: The negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision. On March 24, Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of
19256-496: The negotiations, U.S. leaders were disengaged and uninterested with the process; Kissinger told Ford in 1974 that "we never wanted it but we went along with the Europeans ... [i]t is meaningless—it is just a grandstand play to the left. We are going along with it." In the months leading up to the conclusion of negotiations and signing of the Helsinki Final Act in August 1975, Americans of Eastern European descent voiced their concerns that
19422-417: The new class of " Watergate Babies ," liberal Democrats implemented reforms designed to ease the passage of legislation. The House began to select committee chairs by secret ballot rather than through seniority, resulting in the removal of some conservative Southern committee chairs. The Senate, meanwhile, lowered the number of votes necessary to end a filibuster from 67 to 60. By the time Ford took office,
19588-521: The official White House press release for the bill signing. The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier. The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent in May 1975. In January 1975, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $ 16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation. Ford
19754-420: The only person to become the nation's chief executive without being elected to the presidency or the vice presidency. Immediately afterward, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech that was broadcast live to the nation, noting the peculiarity of his position. He later declared that "our long national nightmare is over". On August 20, Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill
19920-529: The other main parties fled to West Timor and called upon Indonesia to annex East Timor and end the communist threat. On December 7, 1975, Ford and Kissinger met Indonesian President Suharto in Jakarta . Suharto discussed the plans to invade East Timor; both Ford and Kissinger indicated the United States would not take a position on East Timor. Indonesia invaded the next day , and annexed the country . A bloody civil war broke out , and over one hundred thousand died in
20086-435: The panel's activities. In the preface to his book, A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission , Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions. In 1964, Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, secured another term as president and took 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select
20252-509: The pardon to 50 percent immediately after the pardon. Critics derided the move and said a " corrupt bargain " had been struck between the men. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence". Ford's close friend and press secretary, Jerald terHorst , resigned his post in protest. The pardon would hang over Ford for
20418-416: The pardon, but later decided that history had proven Ford to have made the correct decision. On September 16 (shortly after he pardoned Nixon), Ford issued Presidential Proclamation 4313, which introduced a conditional amnesty program for military deserters and Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to
20584-519: The party in the 1990s and early 2000s. He also set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he died in Rancho Mirage, California in 2006. Surveys of historians and political scientists have ranked Ford as a below-average president, though retrospective public polls on his time in office were more positive. Ford
20750-502: The people and acting under the Constitution in their name. It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people. Upon assuming office, Ford inherited Nixon's cabinet , although Ford quickly replaced Chief of Staff Alexander Haig with Donald Rumsfeld , who had served as a Counselor to the President under Nixon. Rumsfeld and Deputy Chief of Staff Dick Cheney rapidly became among
20916-633: The players in the huddle. Before state events, Ford often had the Navy band play the University of Michigan fight song, " The Victors ," instead of " Hail to the Chief ." Ford graduated from Michigan in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics . He turned down offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League . Instead, he took a job in September 1935 as
21082-418: The presidency left the office of vice president vacant. On August 20, 1974, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller , the leader of the party's liberal wing, for the vice presidency. Rockefeller and former Representative George H. W. Bush from Texas were the two finalists for vice presidential nomination, and Ford chose Rockefeller in part due to a Newsweek report that revealed that Bush had accepted money from
21248-421: The presidency or the vice presidency. His presidency ended following his narrow defeat in the 1976 presidential election to Democrat Jimmy Carter , after a period of 895 days in office. Ford took office in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal and in the final stages of the Vietnam War , both of which engendered a new disillusion in American political institutions. Ford's first major act upon taking office
21414-484: The presidency. At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president's residence in Washington, D.C. However, "Al Haig asked to come over and see me", Ford later said, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or
21580-409: The presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon. According to Bob Woodward , Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared. Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost
21746-522: The press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show." Johnson said at the time, "Jerry Ford is so dumb he can't fart and chew gum at the same time." The press, used to sanitizing Johnson's salty language, reported this as "Gerald Ford can't walk and chew gum at the same time." After Richard Nixon was elected president in November 1968, Ford's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda. Congress passed several of Nixon's proposals, including
21912-492: The public would respond to this call for self-restraint much as it had to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's calls for sacrifice during World War II , but the public received WIN with skepticism. At roughly the same time he rolled out WIN, Ford also proposed a ten-point economic plan. The central plank of the plan was a tax increase on corporations and high earners, which Ford hoped would both quell inflation and cut into government's budget deficit. Ford's economic focus changed as
22078-420: The purpose of considering legislation related to the judicial system . This committee approved impeachment resolutions/ articles of impeachment against presidents in four instances: against Andrew Johnson ( in 1867 ), Richard Nixon ( in 1974 ), Bill Clinton ( in 1998 ), and Donald Trump ( in 2019 ). In the 115th Congress , the chairman of the committee was Republican Bob Goodlatte of Virginia , and
22244-582: The ranking minority member was initially Democrat John Conyers of Michigan . On November 26, 2017, Conyers stepped down from his position as ranking member, while he faced an ethics investigation. On November 28, 2017, Jerrold Nadler of New York was named as acting ranking member. In the 116th Congress , the House flipped from Republican to Democratic control. Doug Collins , a Republican from Georgia's 9th congressional district , became ranking member and served from 2019 to 2020. In early 2020, Collins stepped down from his leadership position when he became
22410-543: The region. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters . In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia , Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters, sparking the Mayaguez incident . Ford dispatched Marines to rescue
22576-407: The remainder of his presidency, and damaged his relationship with members of Congress from both parties. Against the advice of most of his advisers, Ford agreed to appear before a House Subcommittee that requested further information on the pardon. On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress, becoming the first sitting president since Woodrow Wilson to do so. After Ford left the White House,
22742-566: The role of money in political campaigns. In 1974, Congress approved amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act , establishing the Federal Election Commission to oversee campaign finance laws. The amendments also established a system of public financing for presidential elections, limited the size of campaign contributions, limited the amount of money that candidates could spend on their own campaigns, and required
22908-562: The second Black man to serve in a presidential cabinet (after Robert C. Weaver ) and the first appointed in a Republican administration. Ford selected George H. W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975. Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld . In 1975, Rumsfeld
23074-451: The seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia. In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises during Ford's presidency. The Cyprus dispute turned into
23240-536: The subsequent cover-up by the Nixon administration. Due to a scandal unrelated to Watergate, Vice President Agnew resigned on October 10, 1973. Under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment , Nixon nominated Ford as Agnew's replacement. Nixon selected Ford, then the House Minority Leader and representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district , largely because he was advised that Ford would be
23406-480: The suburbs and not be reached by court orders regarding segregation of the central city schools. Ford, representing a Michigan district, had always taken the position in favor of the goal of school desegregation but opposition to court-ordered forced busing as a means of achieving it. In the first major bill he signed as president, Ford's compromise solution was to win over the general population with mild anti-busing legislation. He condemned anti-busing violence, promoted
23572-468: The theoretical goal of school desegregation, and promised to uphold the Constitution. The problem did not go away – it only escalated and remained on the front burner for years. Tension exploded in Boston , where working-class Irish neighborhoods inside the city limits violently resisted court-ordered busing of black children into their schools. When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame
23738-416: The vice presidency he had vacated. Rockefeller's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush . Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger . Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both
23904-417: The vice presidency. According to The New York Times , Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement." The advice was unanimous. House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later, "We gave Nixon no choice but Ford." Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the vice presidency would be "a nice conclusion" to his career. Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12,
24070-589: The war, UNITA and the FNLA . After members of Congress learned of the CIA operation, Congress voted to cut off aid to the Angolan groups. The Angolan Civil War would continue in subsequent years, but the Soviet role in the war hindered détente. Congress's role in ending the CIA presence marked the growing power of the legislative branch in foreign affairs. During the Ford administration, the United States began to distance itself from
24236-519: The years that followed. Following the end of the war, Ford expanded the embargo of North Vietnam to cover all of Vietnam, blocked Vietnam's accession to the United Nations , and refused to establish full diplomatic relations. North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence in
24402-454: Was President of the United States (1865–1869). Even Ford's former, reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat, Richard Vander Veen , who defeated Robert VanderLaan . In the Senate elections , the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100-seat body. The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy
24568-480: Was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment. To rein in inflation, it was necessary to control the public's spending. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption. On October 4, 1974, Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress; as a part of this speech he kicked off the "WIN" campaign. Over the next nine days, 101,240 Americans mailed in "WIN" pledges. In hindsight, this
24734-514: Was also promoted to the position of junior varsity head football coach at Yale. While at Yale, Ford began working as a model. He initially worked with the John Robert Powers agency before investing in the Harry Conover agency, with whom he modelled until 1941. While attending Yale Law School, Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr. , and signed a petition to enforce
24900-690: Was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945. From the end of April 1945 to January 1946, he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command, Naval Air Station, Glenview, Illinois , at the rank of lieutenant commander . Ford received the following military awards: the American Campaign Medal , the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars (for operations in
25066-538: Was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska , where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. He was the only child of Dorothy Ayer Gardner and Leslie Lynch King Sr. , a wool trader. His paternal grandfather was banker and businessman Charles Henry King , and his maternal grandfather was Illinois politician and businessman Levi Addison Gardner . Ford's parents separated just sixteen days after his birth and his mother took
25232-408: Was criticized for abruptly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction. In Congress, the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $ 22.8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts. In March 1975, Congress passed, and Ford signed into law, these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975 . This resulted in a federal deficit of around $ 53 billion for
25398-604: Was involved in the Boy Scouts of America , and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout . He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency. Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School, where he was a star athlete and captain of the football team. In 1930, he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League . He also attracted the attention of college recruiters. Ford attended
25564-514: Was named by Ford as the youngest-ever Secretary of Defense . Ford chose a young Wyoming politician, Richard Cheney , to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign . The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place in the wake of the Watergate scandal and less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in
25730-498: Was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections produced a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs. Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from
25896-510: Was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill. In addition, he coached all nine sports that were offered, but mostly swimming, boxing, and football. During the year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade , on June 2, 1942, and to lieutenant, in March 1943. After Ford applied for sea duty, he
26062-523: Was reinforced with another presidential visit in December 1975. Despite the collapse of the trade agreement with the Soviet Union, Ford and Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev continued the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks , which had begun under Nixon. In 1972, the U.S. and the Soviet Union had reached the SALT I treaty , which placed upper limits on each power's nuclear arsenal. Ford met Brezhnev at
26228-488: Was scrupulous in minimizing its usage. However, that complicated his efforts to keep congressional investigations under control. Political scientist Mark J. Rozell concludes that Ford's: Ford made one appointment to the Supreme Court while in office, appointing John Paul Stevens to succeed Associate Justice William O. Douglas . Upon learning of Douglas's impending retirement, Ford asked Attorney General Levi to submit
26394-694: Was selected for the Eastern Team in the Shriners' East–West Shrine Game at San Francisco (a benefit for physically disabled children), played on January 1, 1935. As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team, Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field . In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career, the University of Michigan retired Ford's No. 48 jersey in 1994. With
26560-401: Was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26) , at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey . From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey . While he was on board,
26726-494: Was the 38th president of the United States , serving from 1974 to 1977. A member of the Republican Party , Ford assumed the presidency after President Richard Nixon resigned, under whom he had served as the 40th vice president from 1973 to 1974. Prior to that, he served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1949 to 1973. Ford was born in Omaha, Nebraska and raised in Grand Rapids, Michigan . He attended
26892-443: Was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated . Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976. The vaccine was alleged to have been a factor in twenty-five deaths. Ford continued Nixon's détente policy with both
27058-468: Was to create, by Executive Order on September 30, 1974, the Economic Policy Board. In October 1974, in response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public and asked them to " W hip I nflation N ow". As part of this program, he urged people to wear " WIN " buttons. At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment; there
27224-414: Was to grant a presidential pardon to Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal, prompting a major backlash to Ford's presidency. He also created a conditional clemency program for Vietnam War draft dodgers. Much of Ford's focus in domestic policy was on the economy, which experienced a recession during his tenure. After initially promoting a tax increase designed to combat inflation , Ford championed
27390-489: Was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. The incident prompted the New York Daily News ' famous headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead", referring to a speech in which "Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City ' ". The following month, November 1975, Ford changed his stance and asked Congress to approve federal loans to New York City, upon
27556-437: Was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems. The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one-year, five-percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals. This plan would also take $ 4.4 billion out of the budget, bringing federal spending below $ 300 billion. At the time, inflation was over twelve percent. The federal budget ran
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