116-503: Fisker Automotive was an American automobile company. It produced the Fisker Karma , which was one of the world's first production luxury plug-in hybrid electric vehicles . The company was founded in 2007 by Henrik Fisker , a Danish automobile designer. The company received significant private and public investment, including a $ 529 million loan from the federal government. The company raised over $ 1 billion from private investors such as
232-660: A venture capital firm, was one of the early investors. Fisker was involved in the design of many premium cars such as the Aston Martin DB9 and V8 Vantage , Artega GT , and BMW Z8 . He also served as design director and sat on the board at Aston Martin . Before Fisker Automotive, Fisker and Koehler left Aston Martin in 2005 to establish Fisker Coachbuild, in an attempt to revive the art of coach-building automobiles to customer specifications. The Fisker Tramonto and Latigo used chassis and power trains from Mercedes-Benz SL and BMW 6 Series automobiles. Several were purchased, but
348-436: A warning sound system designed to alert pedestrians of its presence. The warning sound is emitted automatically and activated only when the car is traveling in all-electric mode at less than 25 mph (40 km/h). The Karma's two electric motors produce 201 bhp (204 PS) each for a quoted total of 403 hp (301 kW; 409 PS) and 1,300 newton-metres (960 lbf⋅ft) of torque. The Karma features
464-519: A 125 mph (201 km/h) top speed and is capable of reaching 60 mph (97 km/h) from a standstill in 5.9 seconds in Sport Mode according to Fisker. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) official all-electric range for the Fisker Karma is 32 mi (51 km) under the agency's five-cycle tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls. EPA's estimated energy consumption
580-550: A Quantum Technologies affiliate, to aid the cabin climate control system. The solar roof is capable of generating a half kilowatt-hour a day and was estimated to provide up to 4 to 5 miles (6.4–8.0 km) of additional range a week assuming continuously sunny days; however, the solar panels as delivered only recharge the 12-volt lead-acid accessory battery. The base model of the Karma features an "eco-friendly interior", including salvaged/reclaimed lumber . Optional leather seating
696-577: A Sports Wagon version of the Karma called the Fisker Surf . Aside from the modified rear end, the Surf also received a three-dimensional honeycomb grille. According to Fisker this bodystyle had been planned from the beginning of design work on the Karma. In August 2012 Fisker announced that the Sunset and the Surf were both on hold, as the company had decided to focus on the planned mid-sized Atlantic sedan. Following
812-562: A US$ 529 million green-energy loan, primarily to assist the company in transitioning the Karma, which is assembled in Finland, into the American markets. Fisker collected nearly US$ 200 million until February 2012, when the government froze the loan, because the company was failing to meet the government's milestones. Three months later, in May, Fisker spokesman Roger Ormisher told ABC News that negotiations with
928-413: A balancing circuit until the battery is balanced. Balancing typically occurs whenever one or more cells reach their top-of-charge voltage before the other(s), as it is generally inaccurate to do so at other stages of the charge cycle. This is most commonly done by passive balancing, which dissipates excess charge as heat via resistors connected momentarily across the cells to be balanced. Active balancing
1044-407: A cause of, or even a contributing factor to, the blaze. Fisker reported a loss of around 330 additional Karmas when an entire shipment from Europe was flooded in the port terminal, the estimated value of the flood loss is in excess of US$ 30 million. On April 14, 2008, Tesla Motors filed a lawsuit against Fisker Automotive, alleging that Henrik Fisker stole Tesla's Model S hybrid technology and
1160-420: A conventional lithium-ion cell is graphite made from carbon . The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide or phosphate. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent . The negative electrode (which is the anode when the cell is discharging) and the positive electrode (which is the cathode when discharging) are prevented from shorting by a separator. The electrodes are connected to
1276-565: A deal with BMW for them to supply turbocharged 2.0 liter four cylinder engines for the Atlantic, with the car using a similar plug in hybrid system as the Karma. By February 2012, Fisker had established 45 dealerships in the US and three in Canada. By March 2012, the company had built over 2,450 vehicles, with over 2000 cars delivered to customers by the end of 2012. Fisker Automotive distributed vehicles through
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#17328519640391392-498: A faulty cooling fan unit. On March 7, 2012, a Fisker Karma purchased for US$ 107,850 by Consumer Reports magazine was taken out for a test drive at the 327-acre (132 ha) CR test track facility in Connecticut. The Karma had fewer than 200 miles (320 km) on its odometer. While performing a routine speedometer calibration check prior to actual road testing, the car broke down and could not be restarted. "We buy about 80 cars
1508-417: A gelled material, requiring fewer binding agents. This in turn shortens the manufacturing cycle. One potential application is in battery-powered airplanes. Another new development of lithium-ion batteries are flow batteries with redox-targeted solids, that use no binders or electron-conducting additives, and allow for completely independent scaling of energy and power. Generally, the negative electrode of
1624-471: A heavy discount. On November 22, 2013, Fisker filed its Chapter 11 bankruptcy case. Concurrently, on November 23, 2013, Fisker agreed, subject to bankruptcy court approval, to be acquired by Hybrid, owned by Hong Kong billionaire, Richard Li. At the last moment, though, Chinese parts supplier Wanxiang Group submitted a competing bid of US$ 24.75 million, supported by the Official Creditors' Committee in
1740-400: A higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the electrification of transport , one of the main technologies (combined with renewable energy ) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles . M. Stanley Whittingham conceived intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, based on a titanium disulfide cathode and
1856-404: A liquid solvent (such as propylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate ) is added. The electrolyte salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate ( LiPF 6 ), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. The hexafluorophosphate anion is essential for passivating the aluminium current collector used for the positive electrode. A titanium tab
1972-506: A lithium-aluminium anode, although it suffered from safety problems and was never commercialized. John Goodenough expanded on this work in 1980 by using lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode. The first prototype of the modern Li-ion battery, which uses a carbonaceous anode rather than lithium metal, was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985 and commercialized by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991. M. Stanley Whittingham , John Goodenough , and Akira Yoshino were awarded
2088-524: A lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode structures. The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are the materials of the electrodes, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. Although many thousands of different materials have been investigated for use in lithium-ion batteries, only
2204-462: A longer cycle life , and a longer calendar life . Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold. There are at least 12 different chemistries of Li-ion batteries; see " List of battery types ." The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries may have had one of
2320-424: A non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. Ethylene carbonate is essential for making solid electrolyte interphase on the carbon anode, but since it is solid at room temperature,
2436-512: A parking lot in Woodside, California . According to Fisker engineers, the area of origin for the fire was determined to be outside the engine compartment, as the fire was located at the driver's side front corner of the car. The evidence suggested that the ignition source was not the lithium-ion battery pack, new technology components or unique exhaust routing. The investigation conducted by Fisker engineers and an independent fire expert concluded that
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#17328519640392552-415: A plug-in, just smoldered. A Toyota spokeswoman said the fire "likely started because saltwater got into the electrical system". She also clarified that the incident affected only three cars out of the 4,000 Toyotas that were at the terminal during the storm, including more than 2,128 plug-in or hybrid models. After an investigation by Fisker engineers, witnessed by NHTSA representatives, the company said that
2668-449: A polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 ) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density. Lithium iron phosphate ( LiFePO 4 ), lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn 2 O 4 spinel , or Li 2 MnO 3 -based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide ( LiNiMnCoO 2 or NMC) may offer longer life and
2784-446: A process called insertion ( intercalation ) or extraction ( deintercalation ), respectively. As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries). The following equations exemplify the chemistry (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging). The negative electrode half-reaction for
2900-529: A range of alternative materials, replaced TiS 2 with lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 , or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability. These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal
3016-640: A recall of its battery by supplier A123 systems in December 2011, followed by a second recall in March 2012, and eventually A123 Systems' bankruptcy in August 2012. In addition to production stopping for over five months, with no date announced to recommence, the planned production of the second model, the Fisker Atlantic, was postponed, together with the cessation of development of the new model. In February 2012, Tom LaSorda
3132-668: A royalty to GM for each door handle in the Karma, which was much cheaper than designing its own door handles. However, the A123 battery failure and its resulting recall, and the eventual bankruptcy of the battery supplier, led to significant problems and added cost to the manufacture of the Karma model, finally resulting in Fisker's bankruptcy. In 2008, Fisker estimated 15,000 cars per year would be assembled by Valmet Automotive in Uusikaupunki , Finland . Manufacturing eventually commenced in 2011 but by
3248-407: A short wheelbase hardtop convertible version of the Karma called the Sunset , with the intent of series production. At the 2011 Frankfurt Auto Show , Fisker showed the Surf, a concept model based on the Karma with a station wagon bodystyle. According to Fisker this bodystyle had been planned from the beginning of design work on the Karma. Fisker described the Surf as a "merger of a sports car with
3364-430: A solid organic electrolyte, polyethylene oxide , which was more stable. In 1985, Akira Yoshino at Asahi Kasei Corporation discovered that petroleum coke , a less graphitized form of carbon, can reversibly intercalate Li-ions at a low potential of ~0.5 V relative to Li+ /Li without structural degradation. Its structural stability originates from its amorphous carbon regions, which serving as covalent joints to pin
3480-569: A station wagon" and said he was inspired by cars such as the Jensen Interceptor and Lamborghini Espada . In August 2012 Fisker announced that the Sunset and the Surf were both on hold, as the company had decided to focus on the planned mid-sized Atlantic sedan. The Atlantic was intended to be Fisker's entry into the midsize sedan segment, similar in size to cars such as the Audi A5 . Originally under development as "Project Nina", Fisker had reached
3596-541: A temperature range of 5 to 45 °C (41 to 113 °F). Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature (under 0 °C) charge, the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures
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3712-523: A theoretical capacity of 1339 coulombs per gram (372 mAh/g). The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide ), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate ) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide ). More experimental materials include graphene -containing electrodes, although these remain far from commercially viable due to their high cost. Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus,
3828-522: A traditional dealer network and partnered with five importers: GP Supercars (Merano, Italy), Nellemann (Copenhagen, Denmark); the Emil Frey Group (Zurich, Switzerland); BD Otomotive (Istanbul, Turkey) and Al-Futtaim Group (Middle East and North Africa). Fisker Automotive used to retain core competencies, such as design, engineering and marketing, in house, but outsourced manufacturing of its first vehicle Fisker Karma. Fisker's outsourcing methods allowed
3944-515: A very small number are commercially usable. All commercial Li-ion cells use intercalation compounds as active materials. The negative electrode is usually graphite , although silicon is often mixed in to increase the capacity. The electrolyte is usually lithium hexafluorophosphate , dissolved in a mixture of organic carbonates . A number of different materials are used for the positive electrode, such as LiCoO 2 , LiFePO 4 , and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides . During cell discharge
4060-537: A year and this is the first time in memory that we have had a car that is undriveable before it has finished our check-in process." The fault was traced to a defective battery caused by a misaligned welding robot at the A123 factory. The battery was replaced in a week. A123 is replacing affected batteries in the Karma and four other customers to a cost of $ 55 million. Warranty for the Karma will be extended to 60 months and 60,000 miles in North America. A Fisker Karma
4176-425: A young and successful tech entrepreneur. The car was chosen to represent both Schmit's wealth as well as his eccentricity. In the 2013 drama film Paranoia , a communications titan (played by Harrison Ford ) gives his young associate (played by Liam Hemsworth ) the keys to a brand-new Fisker Karma as a symbol that he has "made it" in the corporate world. In the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto Online , there
4292-563: Is 65 kWh per 100 miles (1462 kJ /km). The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 230 miles (370 km). EPA's official rating for combined city/highway fuel economy in all-electric mode is 52 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) (4.5 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 62 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent). The EPA rating in gasoline-only mode is 20 mpg ‑US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg ‑imp ). The German Technical Inspection Association (TÜV) found through independent tests that
4408-440: Is a CuF 2 /Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide ( TiS 2 ) as a cathode material, which has a layered structure that can take in lithium ions without significant changes to its crystal structure . Exxon tried to commercialize this battery in
4524-424: Is a range-extended electric vehicle or series hybrid driven by a pair of 120 kW (161 hp) electric motors that receive power from a 20.1 kWh lithium ion battery supplied by A123 Systems and/or an engine powered generator. The battery pack runs down the center of the car, between the pairs of left-hand and right-hand seats, preventing a rear bench and seating four rather than five passengers. Once
4640-417: Is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline but does not consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries many times heavier per unit of energy. Note that the cell voltages involved in these reactions are larger than the potential at which an aqueous solutions would electrolyze . During discharge, lithium ions ( Li ) carry the current within
4756-729: Is a vehicle manufactured by a fictional company called "Hijak" called "Khamelion", which is nearly identical to the Fisker Karma. In the TV show Lab Rats the Karma is used as a self-driving car in Season 2 Episode 1: "Speed Trapped". Lithium-ion battery A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries , Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy , higher energy density , higher energy efficiency ,
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4872-428: Is available, but it will use much more of the cow hide than would customarily be found on luxury models; hides with scratches and other marks (which should not affect functionality) will be used. The EcoChic version featured a natural fabric interior with an ultra-suede dash, as part of Fisker's ecological "animal-free" offering and with real leaf fossils embedded in door and central console glass inserts. The Karma has
4988-413: Is less common, more expensive, but more efficient, returning excess energy to other cells (or the entire pack) via a DC-DC converter or other circuitry. Balancing most often occurs during the constant voltage stage of charging, switching between charge modes until complete. The pack is usually fully charged only when balancing is complete, as even a single cell group lower in charge than the rest will limit
5104-540: Is mated with a generator to provide an electrical connection to the motors and also recharge the batteries, and as such the electric motors are the only mechanical driving force connected to the wheels. However, in all-electric mode , the Karma is around half as efficient as the Chevrolet Volt . The Karma's curb weight is 5,300 lb (2,400 kg). The Karma includes as standard a solar paneled roof manufactured by Asola Advanced and Automotive Solar Systems GmbH,
5220-462: Is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below 4.05 V/cell. Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion. Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow "fast-charging" within
5336-483: Is sketched beforehand, saying, "It's a cracking looking jam-jar". May noticed similarities in the hybrid-powertrain to his own idea that was used in a segment for Top Gear a few years earlier (The Hammerhead Eagle i-Thrust ), though he admits that his idea was very crudely executed. He joked that Fisker would be hearing soon from his lawyers. After his test of the Karma EcoChic, James May awarded it his Top Gear "Car of
5452-410: Is ultrasonically welded to the aluminium current collector. Other salts like lithium perchlorate ( LiClO 4 ), lithium tetrafluoroborate ( LiBF 4 ), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ( LiC 2 F 6 NO 4 S 2 ) are frequently used in research in tab-less coin cells , but are not usable in larger format cells, often because they are not compatible with
5568-537: Is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting . The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. The first to demonstrate lithium ion reversible intercalation into graphite anodes was Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974. Besenhard used organic solvents such as carbonates, however these solvents decomposed rapidly providing short battery cycle life. Later, in 1980, Rachid Yazami used
5684-599: The Fisker Karma , which was announced at the North American International Auto Show in January 2008. Tesla's suit claimed that the design work done for the Model S by Fisker Coachbuild was substandard, and that Fisker diverted its best ideas to the Karma. In early 2009, the suit was settled in Fisker's favor and Tesla was ordered to pay Fisker more than US$ 1.1 million in legal fees. Fisker's problems started with
5800-512: The Kleiner Perkins venture capital firm. However, it repeatedly missed production deadlines, and production of the Fisker Karma was suspended in November 2012 with about 2,450 Karmas built since 2011 and just over 2,000 cars sold worldwide. The New York Times described the company as the " Solyndra of the electric car industry" and a "debacle". The company's federal loan was suspended in 2011;
5916-728: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the carmaker said some hose clamps were not properly positioned, which could allow a coolant leak. "If coolant enters the battery compartment an electrical short could possibly occur, causing a thermal event within the battery, including a possible fire in the [worst] case." The problem was discovered on December 16 at the Valmet Automotive assembly plant in Finland when workers noticed coolant dripping. On January 2, 2012, Fisker announced that most customer cars and cars stocked in dealerships affected by
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#17328519640396032-651: The United States Department of Energy auctioned its debt and sold it to Hybrid Technology LLC for US$ 25 million . Following the sale of some of the assets of the company, the designs, rights to a plug-hybrid powertrain and a manufacturing facility in Delaware to the Chinese company Wanxiang , the new owners re-commenced production in September 2016 under the brand name Karma Automotive. After several announcements by
6148-401: The constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the top-of-charge voltage limit per cell is reached. During the balance phase, the charger/battery reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by
6264-692: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries". Jeff Dahn received the ECS Battery Division Technology Award (2011) and the Yeager award from the International Battery Materials Association (2016). In April 2023, CATL announced that it would begin scaled-up production of its semi-solid condensed matter battery that produces a then record 500 Wh/kg . They use electrodes made from
6380-476: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured because they have flammable electrolytes that, if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safe lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion solid-state batteries are being developed to eliminate
6496-495: The DOE were ongoing, and "We're hoping for a conclusion fairly soon." The Karma was praised on the British television series Top Gear for its looks and hybrid technology while being road-tested by presenter James May and special guest, AC/DC front-man Brian Johnson . Johnson noted that it is probably one of the first production cars that actually looks like the concept version that
6612-453: The Fisker Karma as a subcompact car . The first deliveries took place in the U.S. in late July 2011, and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. Pricing in the U.S. started at US$ 102,000 for the base model (EcoStandard), US$ 110,000 for the intermediate EcoSport model and US$ 116,000 for the top model (the "Animal Free" EcoChic). Around 1,800 units were delivered in North America and Europe through December 2012. The U.S.
6728-431: The Fisker Karma has an all-electric range of 83 km (52 mi) in stealth (all-electric) mode. TÜV found that in charge-sustaining sport mode the Karma achieves a fuel economy of 26 mpg (9.2 L/100 km). The combined fuel economy was rated at 112 MPG-e (2.1 l/100 km equivalent) and the emissions level is 51 g/km CO 2 . Fisker Automotive and Valmet Automotive reached agreement in 2008 to manufacture
6844-593: The Fisker logo and trademarks. Wanxiang Group then transformed the assets of Fisker Automotive into a new company named Karma Automotive , thus launching the Karma Revero plug-in hybrid car based on the Fisker Karma. Henrik Fisker would later start another electric vehicle company named Fisker Inc. in 2016 with the Fisker logo and trademarks. The Karma was a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. After missing its initial late 2009 launch, and after
6960-528: The Karma in Uusikaupunki , Finland , with the final assembly contract signed by both parties on November 13, 2008. In 2008 Fisker Automotive began accepting pre-orders in the United States, and Europe and initially scheduled sales of its Karma PHEV by the fourth quarter of 2009 in the United States, and starting in 2010 in Europe. In 2009 Henrik Fisker reported 1,300 orders for the Karma. Henrik Fisker showed
7076-450: The Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at 52 mpg ‑US (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg ‑imp ) equivalent (MPG-e) in all-electric mode , and at 20 mpg ‑US (12 L/100 km; 24 mpg ‑imp ) in gasoline-only mode. EPA's official all-electric range is 32 mi (51 km). Due to the very small cabin interior volume, the EPA rated
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#17328519640397192-645: The United States through December 2013. A total of 533 units were sold in Europe through December 2014. The Netherlands was the top selling European market for the Karma, with 166 units sold through June 2013. A total of 55 Karmas were sold in Switzerland through June 2013, 52 in Belgium through November 2012, and 44 in France through December 2014. In 2010, the United States Department of Energy awarded Fisker
7308-701: The Wanxiang Group to reintroduce an upgraded version of the Fisker Karma, the car was renamed the Karma Revero and Karma Automotive started taking orders in September 2016. The Fisker Karma was revealed at the 2008 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. It was the first car from Fisker Automotive , a then new auto maker based in Anaheim, California, founded on September 5, 2007. Production began in July 2011, and
7424-453: The Year Award" for 2011. In December 2011, Fisker recalled the first 239 Karmas built from July through November 3, 2011, and delivered to the US, due to a risk of battery fire caused by coolant leak. Of the 239 cars, fewer than fifty had been delivered to customers, the rest were in dealerships, and at that time no car had been involved in a fire. In the report filed by Fisker Automotive with
7540-511: The Year Award. In December 2011, Karma was chosen as "Luxury Car of The Year" by Top Gear Magazine , and "Car of The Year" by James May of TopGear . In 2012, the German car magazine Auto Bild awarded the Fisker the "Golden Steering Wheel Award" as "Classic Car of the Future. Producers of the TV show Two and a Half Men chose the Karma as the vehicle for the character Walden Schmidt ,
7656-434: The aluminium current collector. Copper (with a spot-welded nickel tab) is used as the current collector at the negative electrode. Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics. Depending on materials choices, the voltage , energy density , life, and safety of
7772-416: The area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries , ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems. Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples
7888-657: The assets of Fisker after a three-day auction against Hybrid with a bid of $ 149.2 million, with bidding starting at $ 55 million, significantly more than the previous $ 24.75 million bid, and significantly higher than the $ 25 million Hybrid Technology LLC paid the Department of Energy for a $ 164 million loan note. On top of the $ 25 million, the DOE also recouped $ 28 million from Fisker for a total of $ 53 million recovered of its $ 192 million loan. Following Fisker Automotive's structured bankruptcy auction in February 2014, Henrik Fisker retained
8004-399: The battery cell from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non- aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. During charging, an external electrical power source applies an over-voltage (a voltage greater than the cell's own voltage) to the cell, forcing electrons to flow from the positive to the negative electrode. The lithium ions also migrate (through the electrolyte) from
8120-467: The battery is depleted, or when the driver activates the "Sport" paddle on the steering wheel, the front-mounted 260 hp, 2.0-liter Ecotec four-cylinder direct-injection turbocharged gasoline engine powers a generator that sends electricity directly to the drive motors. The engine is sourced from General Motors . The battery can also be charged from the grid, making the vehicle a type of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). The Karma's engine
8236-471: The business soon gave way to Fisker Automotive, a true automobile manufacturer. In 2009, Fisker mentioned plans for another plug-in hybrid, a "high-volume vehicle for a lower price", subject to getting a U.S. Department of Energy loan to build about 100,000 vehicles annually in the United States. On April 14, 2008, Tesla Motors filed a lawsuit against Fisker Automotive, alleging they stole Tesla's technology and were using it to develop their own hybrid car,
8352-470: The cars burned, because six to eight feet of seawater caused a short circuit in a vehicle control unit in one Karma, and high winds spread the resulting fire to 15 others. The company said that its lithium-ion battery was not at fault. Insurer XL Insurance America initially denied the roughly US$ 30 million loss claim and was subsequently sued by Fisker in New York State Supreme Court. The case
8468-409: The case. Wanxiang had earlier lost out to Hybrid in bidding for purchase of the government's loan to Fisker. Wanxiang owns A123 Systems LLC, Fisker's former battery supplier, and Fisker argued that Wanxiang's conduct was partly responsible for Fisker's business failure. As part of its bid, Wanxiang proposed restarting production of the Karma. Wanxiang received court approval on February 18, 2014, to buy
8584-616: The cause of the fire was a low temperature cooling fan located at the left front of the Karma, forward of the wheel. An internal fault caused the fan to fail, overheat and started a slow-burning fire. Fisker announced a recall to repair the faulty cooling fan unit. In separate incidents during the storm and flooding caused by Hurricane Sandy on the night of October 29, 2012, 16 Karmas and one Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid caught fire while parked at Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal . The vehicles were partially submerged by flash floods caused by
8700-433: The company a 2–3 year period of development instead of the typical 5 years and at a cost of US$ 333 million instead of $ 1 billion, and claimed that it could make a profit from selling just 15,000 cars. Fisker used to save significant development costs by using pre-engineered components developed by other car companies whenever possible, such as the door handle mechanism which was a General Motors part; Fisker Automotive just paid
8816-511: The entire battery's usable capacity to that of its own. Balancing can last hours or even days, depending on the magnitude of the imbalance in the battery. During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current. Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging
8932-402: The equity investors as a senior creditor since they purchased the Department of Energy loan note to Fisker Automotive in November 2013. In total, the company raised well over $ 1 billion from private investors. Fisker had received a US$ 528.7 million conditional loan in September 2009 from the Department of Energy's US$ 25 billion Advanced Technologies Vehicle Manufacturing Loan Program (ATVM). Of
9048-419: The external circuit toward the cathode where they recombine with the cathode material in a reduction half-reaction. The electrolyte provides a conductive medium for lithium ions but does not partake in the electrochemical reaction. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, mostly in
9164-481: The external circuit. During charging these reactions and transports go in the opposite direction: electrons move from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the external circuit. To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electrical energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g., due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1). Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with
9280-417: The first production model Karma at the 2010 Paris Motor Show . In July 2011, Fisker stated that it had received 3,000 pre-orders and that the plug-in hybrid was sold out until early 2012. After rescheduling the Karma market launch to September 2010, and missing its target to build 70 to 100 test cars in 2010, production began in July 2011, and the two first deliveries took place in the United States during
9396-465: The first two deliveries took place in the United States on July 26, 2011. In October 2011 the first Karma delivered in the UK was auctioned to benefit Pratham UK and raised a bid of £140,000 (around US$ 220,000 ). At the 2009 Detroit Auto Show , Fisker showed a short wheelbase convertible version called Fisker Sunset, with the intent of series production. At the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show , Fisker showed
9512-864: The flammable electrolyte. Improperly recycled batteries can create toxic waste, especially from toxic metals, and are at risk of fire. Moreover, both lithium and other key strategic minerals used in batteries have significant issues at extraction, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being conflict minerals such as cobalt . Both environmental issues have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as Lithium iron phosphate lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries . Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in
9628-659: The government recovered some of the invested funds, but nevertheless took a $ 139 million loss. In February 2014, Fisker Automotive's Karma vehicle design, tooling, and a manufacturing facility in Delaware were purchased by Chinese auto parts conglomerate Wanxiang Group . In 2016, Wanxiang renamed the holding company for the assets of Fisker Automotive Karma Automotive . Henrik Fisker co-founded Fisker Automotive in 2007 with Fisker Coachbuild partner Bernhard Koehler and Quantum Technologies after securing U$ 5.2 million investment from Gianfranco Pizzuto, an Italian businessman, and Palo Alto Investors. Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers ,
9744-470: The graphite is The positive electrode half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is The full reaction being The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide , leading to the production of lithium oxide , possibly by the following irreversible reaction: Overcharging up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction : The transition metal in
9860-562: The greatest impacts of all technologies in human history , as recognized by the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . More specifically, Li-ion batteries enabled portable consumer electronics , laptop computers , cellular phones , and electric cars , or what has been called the e-mobility revolution. It also sees significant use for grid-scale energy storage as well as military and aerospace applications. Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy or power density. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with
9976-522: The hurricane. Initially, a Fisker Automotive spokesman said the company "can't be certain exactly what happened at the port" but "we think being submerged in 13 feet of saltwater had something to do with it". The carmaker clarified that the Karmas were not charging at the time of the fire and there were no injuries. In the case of the Toyota's incident, a Prius PHV burned and two other Prius, a conventional hybrid and
10092-443: The internal resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging times. Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month. The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge
10208-564: The late 1970s, but found the synthesis expensive and complex, as TiS 2 is sensitive to moisture and releases toxic H 2 S gas on contact with water. More prohibitively, the batteries were also prone to spontaneously catch fire due to the presence of metallic lithium in the cells. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued the development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. In 1980, working in separate groups Ned A. Godshall et al., and, shortly thereafter, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough , after testing
10324-459: The launch was rescheduled several times, the first deliveries took place in the U.S. in late July 2011 and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. The 20.1 kWh (72.36 MJ) lithium ion rechargeable battery in each car came from A123 Systems in Watertown, Massachusetts. The aluminum frame was engineered by Fisker and was supplied by Norsk Hydro from Norway . The cabin interior
10440-435: The layers together. Although it has a lower capacity compared to graphite (~Li0.5C6, 186 mAh g–1), it became the first commercial intercalation anode for Li-ion batteries owing to its cycling stability. In 1987, Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using this anode. He used Goodenough's previously reported LiCoO 2 as the cathode and a carbonate ester -based electrolyte. The battery
10556-570: The loan. The loan received additional scrutiny for being awarded for the manufacture of luxury vehicles that are too expensive for much of the general public. Fisker investor Ray Lane responded that the issues were being blown out of proportion due to election-year politics. Fisker Karma The Fisker Karma is a luxury plug-in range-extended electric sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive between 2011 and 2012. The cars were manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated
10672-428: The negative electrode is the anode and the positive electrode the cathode : electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit. An oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction may also produce uncharged material that remains at the anode. Lithium ions move through the electrolyte; electrons move through
10788-418: The origin of the fire was "residual salt damage inside a Vehicle Control Unit submerged in seawater for several hours. Corrosion from the salt caused a short circuit in the unit, which led to a fire when the Karma's 12-Volt battery fed power into the circuit". The company explained that Sandy's heavy winds spread that fire to other Karmas parked nearby, and also ruled out the vehicles' lithium-ion battery packs as
10904-476: The plant was ultimately torn down. Fisker Automotive's investors have included Leonardo DiCaprio , Palo Alto Investors, Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers , Qatar Holdings, LLC , A123 Systems, and Ace Investments. In April 2012, Fisker announced it had received $ 392 million in a round of financing, which was in addition to $ 850 million in private investment it had received in previous rounds. In Fisker's bankruptcy case, Hybrid Technology LLC ranked ahead of all
11020-410: The positive electrode, cobalt ( Co ), is reduced from Co to Co during discharge, and oxidized from Co to Co during charge. The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant /6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This
11136-492: The positive to the negative electrode where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation . Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions. The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different: During
11252-432: The powered circuit through two pieces of metal called current collectors. The negative and positive electrodes swap their electrochemical roles ( anode and cathode ) when the cell is charged. Despite this, in discussions of battery design the negative electrode of a rechargeable cell is often just called "the anode" and the positive electrode "the cathode". In its fully lithiated state of LiC 6 , graphite correlates to
11368-453: The presence of ethylene carbonate solvent (which is solid at room temperature and is mixed with other solvents to make a liquid). This represented the final innovation of the era that created the basic design of the modern lithium-ion battery. In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Global production capacity
11484-420: The recall involving A123 Systems -supplied battery packs are back in service. The vehicles have either had brand new battery packs installed or the confirmed repair to the hose clamp assembly undertaken. The remaining customers have been contacted and appointments were made for their replacement battery installation. On August 18, 2012, Fisker announced it is recalling about 2,400 Karma plug-in hybrids to repair
11600-431: The sale to Chinese company Wanxiang of assets, designs, rights to a plug-hybrid powertrain, and a manufacturing facility in Delaware, the new owners in September 2016 commenced production under the name Karma Automotive. After several announcements by Wanxiang Group that they would reintroduce an upgraded version of the Fisker Karma, it was renamed the Karma Revero and launched with booking scheduled then too . The Karma
11716-476: The same month. The Valmet plant in Finland began production with five cars a week. By December 2011 the production rate was 25 units a day. Production was suspended in November 2012 due to financial difficulties, with about 2,450 Karmas built since 2011. As a result of flash floods caused by Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, 16 Karmas caught fire and another 330 units were lost when an entire shipment from Europe
11832-589: The third quarter of 2012 production ceased. Then- Vice President of the United States Joe Biden (later President ) attended the October 27, 2009, announcement that Fisker Automotive would take control of the Boxwood Road Plant (previously owned and operated by General Motors as Wilmington Assembly ) in Wilmington, Delaware , with production scheduled to begin in late 2012. This never happened and
11948-488: The total loan amount approved, a total of US$ 192 million was drawn by Fisker Automotive for engineering work with primarily US suppliers to complete the Fisker Karma and Fisker's Project Nina, later revealed as the Fisker Atlantic . The Department of Energy froze Fisker's credit line in August 2012 after US$ 192 million had been drawn, and after differences between the DOE and Fisker on the milestones set as conditions for
12064-419: Was 767 GWh in 2020, with China accounting for 75%. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh. In 2012, John B. Goodenough , Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham, and Yoshino were awarded
12180-630: Was assembled in the discharged state, which made it safer and cheaper to manufacture. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asashi Kasei Co. also released a lithium-ion battery. Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing Yoshino's soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite. In 1990, Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University (Canada) reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in
12296-421: Was designed by Fisker Automotive, but was made in the United States by Magna International of Canada . The EVer powertrain system, technically a series hybrid, delivered over 400 horsepower, and was inspired by Quantum Technologies, a cofounder of and early investor in Fisker. A version of the Karma was relaunched as the Karma Revero in 2016 by Karma Automotive . At the 2009 Detroit Auto Show , Fisker showed
12412-662: Was flooded while being parked at Port Newark–Elizabeth Marine Terminal . Deliveries to retail customers in the U.S. began in November 2011. In the United States the first vehicles were sold for US$ 95,900 for the basic model, and US$ 109,850 for the top model. In December 2011 prices were raised to US$ 102,000 for the base EcoStandard model, and US$ 116,000 for the top model, the EcoChic. Over 2,000 Karmas were delivered to customers in North America and Europe through December 2012, of which, around 200 were delivered in 2011 and approximately 1,800 in 2012. About 1,600 units were sold in
12528-484: Was involved in a home fire that also burned two other cars in Fort Bend County, Texas in May 2012. The chief fire investigator said the Karma was the origin of the fire that spread to the house, but the exact cause is still unknown. The plug-in electric car was not plugged in at the time the fire started and it was reported that the Karma's battery was intact. The carmaker released a public statement saying that there
12644-666: Was named a North American Production Preview Vehicle of the Year by the North American Concept Vehicle of the Year Awards. The award went to Fisker Automotive for the Fisker Karma Sunset. The Fisker Karma was listed among the "Green Design 100" of 2009 by Time magazine. Also, Time listed the Karma among "The 50 Best Inventions" of 2011. In November 2011 the Fisker Karma won Automobile Magazine 's 2012 Design of
12760-401: Was named the new CEO, and Henrik Fisker became executive chairman, but six months later on August 14, La Sorda was replaced by Tony Posawatz , previously General Motors Vehicle Line Director for the Chevrolet Volt . The company suffered a setback on October 29, 2012, when Hurricane Sandy flooded and destroyed its entire European shipment of 338 Karmas at Port Newark, New Jersey . Sixteen of
12876-400: Was ordered to pay US$ 1,144,285 in costs. The Karma Revero is the revamped, and updated version of the Fisker Karma, from Wanxiang 's Karma Automotive , the rebranded successor to Fisker Automotive. The VLF Destino is a prototype internal combustion engine car based on the Fisker Karma, from VLF Automotive , proposed for production. 2009 marked the first time that an electric vehicle
12992-484: Was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge. Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate
13108-509: Was settled with an undisclosed out-of-court agreement. Henrik Fisker resigned in March 2013, after "disagreements with management", in particular "disagreements over business strategy". Shortly after the departure of Henrik Fisker from Fisker Automotive, on April 5, 2013, Fisker laid off 75% of its workforce, retaining only a core group of 40 workers as it continued to negotiate with prospective investors. On October 11, 2013, Hybrid Technology LLC agreed to buy Fisker's defaulted government loan at
13224-505: Was the leading market, with about 1,600 units sold. Production was suspended in November 2012 when the sole battery supplier to Fisker Automotive , A123 Systems , filed for bankruptcy following two battery recalls. Fisker Automotive was unable to carry on production of the Fisker Karma in the absence of its sole battery supplier, with about 2,450 Karmas built since 2011. After furloughing its US workers in late March 2013, Fisker Automotive filed for bankruptcy in November 2013, after
13340-419: Was uncertainty and conflicting reports surrounding the event. Fisker Automotive also stated that the battery pack "does not appear to have been a contributing factor in this incident." The NHTSA is conducting a field inquiry of the incident, and is working with insurance adjusters and Fisker to determine the fire's cause. A second fire incident took place in August 2012 when a Karma caught fire while stopped at
13456-472: Was using it to develop the Karma. Tesla's suit claimed that the design work done for the Model S sedan by Fisker Coachbuild was substandard, and that Fisker Automotive diverted its best ideas to the Karma. On November 4, 2008 CNET News reported that Tesla Motors would discontinue its suit after an interim ruling in favor of Fisker et al. A news release on the Fisker Automotive website stated that Tesla
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