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127-445: (Redirected from Fifth Planet ) Fifth planet may refer to: Astronomy [ edit ] Jupiter , fifth planet from the Sun in our Solar System Fifth planet (hypothetical) , any of various hypothetical planets thought to have existed Planet V , 2002 scientific proposal for a destroyed fifth planet Mars , fifth planet from Earth in

254-447: A greenhouse gas and warming feedback, contributing more to total greenhouse effect than non-condensable gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor, as steam , has been important for cooking, and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in

381-521: A system of multiple protostars , which are quite common, with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter does not qualify as a protostar or brown dwarf since it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen. According to the " grand tack hypothesis ", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5  AU (520 million  km ; 330 million  mi ) from

508-542: A 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment . Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) snow line, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from

635-440: A 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All of this happened over a period of 3–6   million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from

762-464: A Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke , ⟨Ƶ⟩ , as an abbreviation for Zeus . In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter , i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove , is known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century. Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial , employed by astrologers in

889-424: A certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more static electricity , the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a local oppositely charged region, in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and

1016-468: A combined mass 7–25 times the Earth. This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula. Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core. Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies

1143-528: A crystalline structure or alter an existing one, sometimes resulting in characteristic color changes that can be used for measurement . Measuring the quantity of water vapor in a medium can be done directly or remotely with varying degrees of accuracy. Remote methods such electromagnetic absorption are possible from satellites above planetary atmospheres. Direct methods may use electronic transducers, moistened thermometers or hygroscopic materials measuring changes in physical properties or dimensions. Water vapor

1270-502: A disproportionate impact, which is why jet traffic has a disproportionately high warming effect. Oxidation of methane is also a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere, and adds about 15% to methane's global warming effect. In the absence of other greenhouse gases, Earth's water vapor would condense to the surface; this has likely happened , possibly more than once. Scientists thus distinguish between non-condensable (driving) and condensable (driven) greenhouse gases, i.e.,

1397-457: A faint system of planetary rings that were discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 and further investigated by the Galileo orbiter in the 1990s. The Jovian ring system consists mainly of dust and has three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. The rings have a reddish colour in visible and near-infrared light. The age of

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1524-436: A key role in lightning production in the atmosphere. From cloud physics , usually clouds are the real generators of static charge as found in Earth's atmosphere. The ability of clouds to hold massive amounts of electrical energy is directly related to the amount of water vapor present in the local system. The amount of water vapor directly controls the permittivity of the air. During times of low humidity, static discharge

1651-471: A large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form

1778-672: A layer of liquid water about 25 mm deep. The mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 metre, a comparison which implies a rapid turnover of water in the air – on average, the residence time of a water molecule in the troposphere is about 9 to 10 days. Global mean water vapour is about 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass and also varies seasonally, in terms of contribution to atmospheric pressure between 2.62 hPa in July and 2.33 hPa in December. IPCC AR6 expresses medium confidence in increase of total water vapour at about 1-2% per decade; it

1905-565: A major constituent of the atmosphere of dwarf planet , Ceres , largest object in the asteroid belt The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory . The finding is unexpected because comets , not asteroids , are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." Scientists studying Mars hypothesize that if water moves about

2032-533: A mass of 60.4   M J . Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition

2159-414: A number of other formulae which can be used. Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere. Exhaled air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at

2286-408: A period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement. Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of

2413-460: A radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At

2540-580: A single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA . It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot". In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole . This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over

2667-437: A surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1  bar (0.10  MPa ), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core

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2794-431: A surface, a net warming occurs on that surface. The water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly. In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei ). The dew point of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense. Condensation in

2921-403: A transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33  K (−240.2  °C ; −400.3  °F ). In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from

3048-422: A working medium which shuttles forth and back between both. The upper temperature level is given by the soil or water surface of the Earth, which absorbs the incoming sun radiation and warms up, evaporating water. The moist and warm air at the ground is lighter than its surroundings and rises up to the upper limit of the troposphere. There the water molecules radiate their thermal energy into outer space, cooling down

3175-405: Is a gas giant , meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator , giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm ,

3302-401: Is a by-product of respiration in plants and animals. Its contribution to the pressure, increases as its concentration increases. Its partial pressure contribution to air pressure increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atmospheric gases (Dalton's Law) . The total air pressure must remain constant. The presence of water vapor in the air naturally dilutes or displaces

3429-454: Is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in

3556-459: Is about ten times larger than Earth ( 11.209  R 🜨 ) and smaller than the Sun ( 0.102 76   R ☉ ). Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth; 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068  solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about one tenth

3683-406: Is an important greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red . Water vapor is the "working medium" of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine which transforms heat energy from sun irradiation into mechanical energy in the form of winds. Transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy requires an upper and a lower temperature level, as well as

3810-444: Is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles . On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter. Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period

3937-425: Is defined as thermal energy and occurs only when there is differential in the temperature of the water molecules. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it, in a process called evaporative cooling . The amount of water vapor in the air determines how frequently molecules will return to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to

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4064-413: Is denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by mass. The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula . Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to

4191-411: Is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa. The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers. Jupiter

4318-411: Is expected to increase by around 7% per °C of warming. Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water,

4445-411: Is extremely valuable to certain scientific disciplines, a dramatic example being the collection of meteorites that are left exposed in unparalleled numbers and excellent states of preservation. Sublimation is important in the preparation of certain classes of biological specimens for scanning electron microscopy . Typically the specimens are prepared by cryofixation and freeze-fracture , after which

4572-406: Is lighter or less dense than dry air . At equivalent temperatures it is buoyant with respect to dry air, whereby the density of dry air at standard temperature and pressure (273.15 K, 101.325 kPa) is 1.27 g/L and water vapor at standard temperature has a vapor pressure of 0.6 kPa and the much lower density of 0.0048 g/L. Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0 °C: At

4699-670: Is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets . The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon , oxygen , sulfur , and neon , as well as ammonia , water vapour , phosphine , hydrogen sulfide , and hydrocarbons like methane , ethane and benzene . Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The planet's interior

4826-489: Is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities. The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars. Jupiter's rotation

4953-433: Is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but at altitude it goes below its freezing point (0 °C), due to water's highly polar attraction . When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant dew point and frost point , unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a scale height a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere, as the water condenses and exits , primarily in

5080-675: Is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts . The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence . Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams . The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them. The cloud layer

5207-406: Is quick and easy. During times of higher humidity, fewer static discharges occur. Permittivity and capacitance work hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning. After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or insulator ) that decreases the ability of the cloud to discharge its electrical energy. Over

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5334-497: Is referred to as a 'feedback', because it amplifies the effect of forces that initially cause the warming. So, it is a greenhouse gas. Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface and diffuses into a surrounding gas, it is said to have evaporated . Each individual water molecule which transitions between a more associated (liquid) and a less associated (vapor/gas) state does so through the absorption or release of kinetic energy . The aggregate measurement of this kinetic energy transfer

5461-413: Is that water vapor amounts over land areas decrease more in winter months than adjacent ocean areas do. This is largely because air temperatures over land drop more in the winter than temperatures over the ocean. Water vapor condenses more rapidly in colder air. As water vapor absorbs light in the visible spectral range, its absorption can be used in spectroscopic applications (such as DOAS ) to determine

5588-447: Is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky , after the Moon and Venus , and has been observed since prehistoric times . Its name derives from that of Jupiter , the chief deity of ancient Roman religion . Jupiter was the first of the Sun's planets to form, and its inward migration during the primordial phase of the Solar System affected much of the formation history of

5715-414: Is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation . The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. The planet

5842-505: Is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a gas giant with a mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined and slightly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Its diameter is eleven times that of Earth , and a tenth that of the Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20  AU (778.5  Gm ), with an orbital period of 11.86  years . It

5969-530: Is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation. Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon , and Venus ), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to

6096-517: Is the process by which water molecules directly leave the surface of ice without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow mid-winter disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting. Antarctica shows this effect to a unique degree because it is by far the continent with the lowest rate of precipitation on Earth. As a result, there are large areas where millennial layers of snow have sublimed, leaving behind whatever non-volatile materials they had contained. This

6223-448: Is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170  mT ) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents —swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from

6350-488: Is used as a lifting gas by a thermal airship the water vapor is heated to form steam so that its vapor pressure is greater than the surrounding air pressure in order to maintain the shape of a theoretical "steam balloon", which yields approximately 60% the lift of helium and twice that of hot air. The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for

6477-543: The Middle Ages , has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology . The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno- , which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenography . Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond

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6604-431: The Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor can also be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects. Water vapor, which reacts to temperature changes,

6731-491: The atmosphere . The percentage of water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F) to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F). Over 99% of atmospheric water is in the form of vapour, rather than liquid water or ice, and approximately 99.13% of the water vapour is contained in the troposphere . The condensation of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for clouds , rain, snow, and other precipitation , all of which count among

6858-605: The precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior. Based on spectroscopy , Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements , including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice. Jupiter

6985-402: The snow line : a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of

7112-509: The troposphere , the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) and methane , being well-mixed in the atmosphere, tend to rise above water vapour. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earth's emission to space, and thus the planetary greenhouse effect . This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct spectral features versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising CO 2 levels. Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has

7239-485: The " Suì Star" ( Suìxīng 歲星 ) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name ( simplified as 歲 ) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac , and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling

7366-423: The 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period. In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation. The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced

7493-450: The Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4   million years. Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation

7620-485: The Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds . Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth. Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for

7747-466: The Ptolemaic geocentric model Ceres (dwarf planet) , dwarf planet between Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt Fiction [ edit ] Fifth Planet (novel) , science fiction novel by Fred and Geoffrey Hoyle See also [ edit ] Planet § History and etymology Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

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7874-448: The Sun is 778 million km ( 5.2  AU ) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance . The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion , which means that its orbit

8001-532: The Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards. Jupiter

8128-406: The Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from Saturn caused it to migrate inward. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in

8255-444: The above water vapor feedback. Fog and clouds form through condensation around cloud condensation nuclei . In the absence of nuclei, condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition, cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which precipitate when they reach a critical mass. Atmospheric concentration of water vapour is highly variable between locations and times, from 10 ppmv in

8382-564: The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. This is done operationally, e.g. from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) spectrometers on ERS (GOME) and MetOp (GOME-2). The weaker water vapor absorption lines in the blue spectral range and further into the UV up to its dissociation limit around 243 nm are mostly based on quantum mechanical calculations and are only partly confirmed by experiments. Water vapor plays

8509-523: The ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon : Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans. The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants. The planetary symbol for Jupiter, [REDACTED] , descends from

8636-434: The atmosphere and the water surface determine the equilibrium vapor pressure; 100% relative humidity occurs when the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This condition is often referred to as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 grams per cubic metre in dry air to 30 grams per cubic metre (0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C. Sublimation

8763-494: The atmosphere attenuates radar signals. In addition, atmospheric water will reflect and refract signals to an extent that depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid. Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience

8890-502: The atmosphere forms cloud droplets. Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. Deposition is a phase transition separate from condensation which leads to the direct formation of ice from water vapor. Frost and snow are examples of deposition. There are several mechanisms of cooling by which condensation occurs: 1) Direct loss of heat by conduction or radiation. 2) Cooling from

9017-460: The body temperature. In the cold air the exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or mist of water droplets and as condensation or frost on surfaces. Forcibly condensing these water droplets from exhaled breath is the basis of exhaled breath condensate , an evolving medical diagnostic test. Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry. Thermal comfort depends on

9144-455: The broken surface is freeze-etched, being eroded by exposure to vacuum until it shows the required level of detail. This technique can display protein molecules, organelle structures and lipid bilayers with very low degrees of distortion. Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the dew point temperature, or when the water vapor equilibrium in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses onto

9271-465: The chromophores from view. Jupiter has a low axial tilt , thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer. A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot , a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of

9398-481: The cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at

9525-454: The coldest air to 5% (50 000 ppmv) in humid tropical air, and can be measured with a combination of land observations, weather balloons and satellites. The water content of the atmosphere as a whole is constantly depleted by precipitation. At the same time it is constantly replenished by evaporation, most prominently from oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist earth. Other sources of atmospheric water include combustion, respiration, volcanic eruptions,

9652-400: The constellation Pegasus, provides the first evidence of atmospheric water vapor beyond the Solar System. A star called CW Leonis was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging, massive star . A NASA satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from

9779-416: The drop in air pressure which occurs with uplift of air, also known as adiabatic cooling . Air can be lifted by mountains, which deflect the air upward, by convection, and by cold and warm fronts. 3) Advective cooling - cooling due to horizontal movement of air. A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air

9906-488: The earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831. The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century. Water vapour Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in Earth's atmosphere , where it acts as

10033-476: The equator as the seasons change. This band of humidity is part of the Intertropical Convergence Zone , where the easterly trade winds from each hemisphere converge and produce near-daily thunderstorms and clouds. Farther from the equator, water vapor concentrations are high in the hemisphere experiencing summer and low in the one experiencing winter. Another pattern that shows up in the time series

10160-489: The equator. It was first observed in 1831, and possibly as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The storm rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above

10287-492: The formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet. Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi). According to the Nice model , the infall of proto- Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into

10414-489: The four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons ) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery

10541-400: The halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice. The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis , which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way,

10668-531: The highest amounts (6 centimeters) appear in dark blue. Areas of missing data appear in shades of gray. The maps are based on data collected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor on NASA's Aqua satellite. The most noticeable pattern in the time series is the influence of seasonal temperature changes and incoming sunlight on water vapor. In the tropics, a band of extremely humid air wobbles north and south of

10795-516: The hydrogen. The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colourful compounds, known as chromophores , mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides

10922-472: The inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble. There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition. Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula . Some competing models of Solar System formation predict

11049-520: The late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. As of 2015 , the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 miles). Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with

11176-516: The loss of water. In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from under 30 to over 120 inches per year. Formulas can be used for calculating

11303-401: The magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide , forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere , producing sulfur and oxygen ions . They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in

11430-437: The moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called refrigeration , and also are affected by water vapor. For example, many food stores, like supermarkets, utilize open chiller cabinets, or food cases , which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems. Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of

11557-420: The moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit. Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7% of the Sun's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and

11684-413: The most obvious result of this is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that has been recorded since 1831. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest and second-largest contiguous structure in the Solar System, generated by eddy currents within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. The solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere , extending it outward and affecting Jupiter's orbit. Jupiter is surrounded by

11811-468: The most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the latent heat of vaporization , which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the atmospheric energy budget on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric convection is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as tropical cyclones and severe thunderstorms . Water vapor

11938-533: The most used reference formula is the Goff-Gratch equation for the SVP over liquid water below zero degrees Celsius: where T , temperature of the moist air, is given in units of kelvin , and p is given in units of millibars ( hectopascals ). The formula is valid from about −50 to 102 °C; however there are a very limited number of measurements of the vapor pressure of water over supercooled liquid water. There are

12065-431: The oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed. The image loop on the right shows monthly average of water vapor content with the units are given in centimeters, which is the precipitable water or equivalent amount of water that could be produced if all the water vapor in the column were to condense. The lowest amounts of water vapor (0 centimeters) appear in yellow, and

12192-440: The other air components as its concentration increases. This can have an effect on respiration. In very warm air (35 °C) the proportion of water vapor is large enough to give rise to the stuffiness that can be experienced in humid jungle conditions or in poorly ventilated buildings. Water vapor has lower density than that of air and is therefore buoyant in air but has lower vapor pressure than that of air. When water vapor

12319-436: The other planets. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with a denser interior. It contains trace elements and compounds like carbon , oxygen , sulfur , neon , ammonia , water vapour , phosphine , hydrogen sulfide , and hydrocarbons . Jupiter's helium abundance is 80% of the Sun's, similar to Saturn 's composition. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than

12446-458: The planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk , it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with

12573-455: The planet receives from the Sun. Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material. Because of its rapid rate of rotation, one turn in ten hours, Jupiter is an oblate spheroid ; it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries;

12700-465: The planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere . A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth. Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as

12827-413: The planet, it does so as vapor. The brilliance of comet tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the Sun , the ice many comets carry sublimes to vapor. Knowing a comet's distance from the sun, astronomers may deduce the comet's water content from its brilliance. Water vapor has also been confirmed outside the Solar System. Spectroscopic analysis of HD 209458 b , an extrasolar planet in

12954-457: The planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock . Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause , located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath —a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within

13081-399: The polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism , and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun. Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as

13208-486: The process of water vapor in the water cycle . Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The balance between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called vapor partial pressure . The maximum partial pressure ( saturation pressure ) of water vapor in air varies with temperature of the air and water vapor mixture. A variety of empirical formulas exist for this quantity;

13335-411: The radius of the Sun, and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun , as the densities of the two bodies are similar. A " Jupiter mass " ( M J or M Jup ) is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs . For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69   M J , while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has

13462-454: The rate of evaporation from a water surface such as a swimming pool. In some countries, the evaporation rate far exceeds the precipitation rate. Evaporative cooling is restricted by atmospheric conditions . Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as hygrometers . The measurements are usually expressed as specific humidity or percent relative humidity . The temperatures of

13589-582: The region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De , an ancient Chinese astronomer , reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet, which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia. A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule

13716-476: The ring system is unknown, possibly dating back to Jupiter's formation. At least 95 moons orbit the planet; the four largest moons — Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto —orbit within the magnetosphere, and were discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury . Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes : seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters, with two more en route. In both

13843-640: The role of such processes is trivial. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by volcanoes varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest volcanic gas ; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a subaerial eruption . Atmospheric water vapor content is expressed using various measures. These include vapor pressure, specific humidity , mixing ratio, dew point temperature, and relative humidity . Because water molecules absorb microwaves and other radio wave frequencies, water in

13970-421: The same effect. Water vapor reflects radar to a lesser extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual molecule ; however, the existence of water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prism. A comparison of GOES-12 satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to

14097-404: The same temperature, a column of dry air will be denser or heavier than a column of air containing any water vapor, the molar mass of diatomic nitrogen and diatomic oxygen both being greater than the molar mass of water. Thus, any volume of dry air will sink if placed in a larger volume of moist air. Also, a volume of moist air will rise or be buoyant if placed in a larger region of dry air. As

14224-559: The same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior. The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere. Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4   milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to

14351-435: The sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30  MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers . As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into

14478-434: The short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow. Jupiter's magnetic field

14605-507: The source's charge generating ability. Water vapor is common in the Solar System and by extension, other planetary systems . Its signature has been detected in the atmospheres of the Sun, occurring in sunspots . The presence of water vapor has been detected in the atmospheres of all seven extraterrestrial planets in the Solar System, the Earth's Moon, and the moons of other planets, although typically in only trace amounts. Geological formations such as cryogeysers are thought to exist on

14732-416: The surface of several icy moons ejecting water vapor due to tidal heating and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiter's moon Europa and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturn's moon Enceladus . Traces of water vapor have also been detected in the stratosphere of Titan . Water vapor has been found to be

14859-413: The surrounding air. The upper atmosphere constitutes the lower temperature level of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine. The water vapor in the now cold air condenses out and falls down to the ground in the form of rain or snow. The now heavier cold and dry air sinks down to ground as well; the atmospheric thermodynamic engine thus establishes a vertical convection, which transports heat from the ground into

14986-434: The surrounding cloud tops. The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation. The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in

15113-451: The temperature rises the proportion of water vapor in the air increases, and its buoyancy will increase. The increase in buoyancy can have a significant atmospheric impact, giving rise to powerful, moisture rich, upward air currents when the air temperature and sea temperature reaches 25 °C or above. This phenomenon provides a significant driving force for cyclonic and anticyclonic weather systems (typhoons and hurricanes). Water vapor

15240-497: The time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter. Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core , a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen . Alternatively, if

15367-459: The title Fifth planet . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fifth_planet&oldid=1189582453 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Jupiter Jupiter

15494-406: The transpiration of plants, and various other biological and geological processes. At any given time there is about 1.29 x 10 litres (3.4 x 10 gal.) of water in the atmosphere. The atmosphere holds 1 part in 2500 of the fresh water, and 1 part in 100,000 of the total water on Earth. The mean global content of water vapor in the atmosphere is roughly sufficient to cover the surface of the planet with

15621-418: The upper atmosphere, where the water molecules can radiate it to outer space. Due to the Earth's rotation and the resulting Coriolis forces, this vertical atmospheric convection is also converted into a horizontal convection, in the form of cyclones and anticyclones, which transport the water evaporated over the oceans into the interior of the continents, enabling vegetation to grow. Water in Earth's atmosphere

15748-694: The water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result in water formation are the burning of hydrogen or hydrocarbons in air or other oxygen containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers. In a similar fashion other chemical or physical reactions can take place in the presence of water vapor resulting in new chemicals forming such as rust on iron or steel, polymerization occurring (certain polyurethane foams and cyanoacrylate glues cure with exposure to atmospheric humidity) or forms changing such as where anhydrous chemicals may absorb enough vapor to form

15875-574: Was a major point in favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus ; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition . In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere. During

16002-512: Was achieved. Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star , its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn. Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. At

16129-562: Was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic . In his 2nd century work the Almagest , the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered

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