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86-501: Packard Electric had first been set up in 1894 in order to supply transformers during the Niagara Falls hydroelectric developments. Ferranti Canada had first been set up in 1912, acting primarily as a sales and distribution arm for their British designed electrical products. Prior to World War II , Canada's economy was primarily agricultural. While this allowed it to raise a fairly large army with relative ease, it also meant that it

172-403: A DC component flowing in the windings. A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core to control alternating current. Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance ( X / R ) ratio of two transformers were the same, the transformers would share

258-448: A collection of material about Ferranti-Packard. Transformer In electrical engineering , a transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits . A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around

344-535: A confidential report to the bank and a summary statement for the bank's annual report. Some members of Congress continue to advocate a more public and intrusive GAO audit of the Federal Reserve System, but Federal Reserve representatives support the existing restrictions to prevent political influence over long-range economic decisions. The Federal Reserve officially identifies Districts by number and Reserve Bank city. The New York Federal Reserve district

430-513: A convoy under attack by submarines. Belyea presented his ideas to Ferranti, who agreed to start development of the technologies needed. By 1950, they had successfully developed a PCM -based radio system for passing digital data between ships, and the DRB started to become very interested. Full-scale development of the system, known as DATAR , started in February 1951 and underwent trials in late 1953. However,

516-468: A dividend out of the Reserve Bank's earnings but otherwise is quite different from common stock in a private corporation. It may not be traded, transferred or borrowed against, and it grants no ownership of the Reserve Bank's surplus. A bank's stock ownership does not give it proportional voting power to choose the Reserve Bank's directors; instead, each member bank receives three ranked votes for six of

602-529: A final machine by a research facility in Dalkeith , bringing the total to five sales. Meanwhile, unknown to Ferranti-Packard, Ferranti in the UK had decided to cut their losses and exit the commercial computer business. In early 1963, they approached International Computers and Tabulators with the proposal to sell off their commercial division. Perhaps unsurprisingly, ICT found the proposal unattractive. When they learned of

688-401: A flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding. The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and

774-403: A hard-wired transistorized computer that stored a table of postal codes on a magnetic drum . Operators were presented with envelopes and typed in the postal code, which their typewriter printed onto the envelope as a bar code in fluorescent ink. The sorting system would then read the bar code and automatically route it. The system was a complete success. This system so impressed visitors from

860-670: A large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV). At much higher frequencies

946-493: A nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding. The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve

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1032-432: A number of approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactance by simple summation as two series impedances. Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from

1118-433: A permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed

1204-635: A portfolio of government-issued or government-guaranteed securities that is shared among all of the Reserve Banks. The Federal Reserve Banks fund their own operations, primarily by distributing the earnings from the System Open Market Account. Expenses and dividends paid are typically a small fraction of a Federal Reserve Bank's revenue each year. The banks may retain part of their earnings in their own surplus funds that are limited to $ 7.5 billion, system-wide. The rest must be transferred via

1290-483: A similar commercial/academic development project with Manchester University to build the Manchester Mark 1 computer, so it seemed that their Canadian division would naturally be able to do the same. In October 1948, he flew to Canada to meet with the DRB. He was disappointed to learn that the DRB did not have the financial resources to fund any sort of program, but Ferranti remained interested, even though it appeared

1376-468: A transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance , such as electric arcs , mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders . Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have

1462-575: A way to try to sell off the Canadian division in the 1970s. In addition Air Canada commenced use at all its baggage claims, but also used for Flight information displays, starting with its new terminal at the Kennedy Terminal in New York. Today, these displays can commonly be found in outdoor use, notably on highway signage and in the automotive application of destination signs for public service vehicles. It

1548-468: Is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City , in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency. The original Federal Reserve Act provided starting capital for the Reserve Banks by requiring the participating banks to purchase stock in a Reserve Bank in proportion to their assets. This stock pays

1634-687: Is a regional bank of the Federal Reserve System , the central banking system of the United States. There are twelve in total, one for each of the twelve Federal Reserve Districts that were created by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The banks are jointly responsible for implementing the monetary policy set forth by the Federal Open Market Committee , and are divided as follows: Some banks also possess branches , with

1720-519: Is at the expense of flux density at saturation. For instance, ferrite saturation occurs at a substantially lower flux density than laminated iron. Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning. Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers

1806-402: Is between about 98 and 99 percent. As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load loss , full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on

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1892-425: Is given by the universal EMF equation: A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's 'dot' end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's 'dot' end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have

1978-727: Is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States , the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA [the Federal Tort Claims Act ], but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations." The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes," such as anti-bribery law. Another relevant decision

2064-421: Is rarely attempted; the 'real' transformer model's equivalent circuit shown below does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted. The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by

2150-500: Is the largest by asset value. San Francisco, followed by Kansas City and Minneapolis, represent the largest geographical districts. Missouri is the only state to have two Federal Reserve Banks (Kansas City and St. Louis). California, Florida, Missouri , Ohio , Pennsylvania , Tennessee , and Texas are the only states which have two or more Federal Reserve Bank branches seated within their states, with Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee having branches of two different districts within

2236-568: The Board of Governors . Their corporate structure reflects the concurrent interests of the government and the member banks, but neither of these interests amounts to outright ownership. Legal cases involving the Federal Reserve Banks have concluded that they are "private", but can be held or deemed as "governmental" depending on the particular law at issue. In United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation v. Western Union Telegraph Co. ,

2322-525: The Federal Reserve System in which several Federal Reserve Banks would provide liquidity to banks in different regions of the country. The Federal Reserve Banks opened for business in November 1914. The Reserve Banks are organized as self-financing corporations and empowered by Congress to distribute currency and regulate its value under policies set by the Federal Open Market Committee and

2408-513: The US Post Office that they decided they needed one of their own. They also decided to develop their own system instead of simply buying the Ferranti one, delaying their entry into automated sorting until 1960. A Canada-wide expansion using Ferranti's existing system soon ended in the 1957 election, whose main issue was rampant Liberal spending, including Ferranti's "million dollar monster". Oddly,

2494-787: The University of Toronto 's experimental UTEC computer, which seemed considerably less complex than the Mark I being developed in England. This effort also ended when in 1952, the University purchased a surplus Mark I originally intended for the UK's nuclear weapons program which had suffered massive budget cuts with a change of government. In 1956, the company received a contract from the Canadian Post Office to develop an electronic mail sorting system, which they delivered later that year. The system used

2580-468: The magnetizing branch of the model. Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I M to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of

2666-433: The power grid . Ideal transformer equations By Faraday's law of induction: where V {\displaystyle V} is the instantaneous voltage , N {\displaystyle N} is the number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt is the derivative of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding over time ( t ), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary. Combining

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2752-553: The Atlas machine as well, but after successfully securing loans from the government they were astounded to learn that the UK division refused to allow them access to the design. Many of the company's engineers resigned in disgust, although some were later convinced to stay on. The UK division then asked several Canadian engineers to move to England in an attempt to re-engineer the Orion based on ReserVec's transistorized circuits. Known as Orion II,

2838-502: The Board of Governors to the Secretary of the Treasury, who then deposits it to the Treasury's general fund. When a Reserve Bank's earnings are insufficient to cover its expenses and dividends, it introduces a deferred asset on its books to be realized from future earnings. The Reserve Banks were historically capitalized through deposits of gold, and in 1933 all privately held monetary gold

2924-509: The FP-6000 their attitude changed, and they eventually agreed to the purchase under the stipulation that rights to the FP-6000 would be transferred from Canada. The FP-6000 then became the basis for ICT 1900 series machines, which eventually sold into the thousands. After the ICT takeover, Ferranti-Packard proposed that they manufacture several models of the 1900-series, as well as serve as a gateway into

3010-548: The Federal Reserve Bank, they proposed to build a new machine to replace the earlier post-office-derived system. The Bank accepted the proposal, and work on what would become the Ferranti-Packard 6000 started in late 1961. This joint venture with Pitney-Bowes was one of five MICR trials at various FRB districts. The system was delivered in early 1963 and removed a year later. In order to differentiate themselves from

3096-554: The Federal Reserve System's accounting principles. The banks are also subject to two types of external auditing. Since 1978 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has conducted regular audits of the banks' operations. The GAO audits are reported to the public, but they may not review a bank's monetary policy decisions or disclose them to the public. Since 1999 each bank has also been required to submit to an annual audit by an external accounting firm, which produces

3182-546: The Ferranti system into a commercial line, but it became clear that as general purpose computers fell in price, a single mass-produced model would soon be able to outperform a custom-built design, even on cost. Honeywell started shopping around for just such a system at about this time. Another brush with success came in 1959 with the ReserVec on-line reservation system developed for Trans-Canada Air Lines . This product suffered from stiff competition from IBM 's SABRE system in

3268-588: The North American market. ICT, however, was interested in Europe only. Most of the FP-6000 engineers soon left the company, forming ESE Limited and Teklogix . The programmers founded I. P. Sharp Associates in December 1964. One of the Canadian company's developments was the flip-disc display , which creates a large display out of a grid of small disks, painted black on one side and some bright color (typically yellow) on

3354-513: The Reserve Bank's nine directors, who are subject to qualifications defined in the Federal Reserve Act. If a Reserve Bank were ever dissolved or liquidated, the Act states that members would be eligible to redeem their stock up to its purchase value, while any remaining surplus would belong to the federal government. Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and

3440-671: The Reserve Banks operate as distinct financial entities, they participate each April in an interdistrict settlement process that has three purposes: settling the payment balances that the Reserve Banks owe each other; allocating ownership of the SOMA portfolio; and establishing uniform gold certificate backing for Federal Reserve Notes. This process connects the Reserve Banks' different functions – monetary policy, payment clearing and currency issue – as an integrated system. The Federal Reserve Banks conduct ongoing internal audits of their operations to ensure that their accounts are accurate and comply with

3526-520: The Reserve Banks to pay interest on member bank reserves, while the FAST Act of 2015 imposed an additional dividend limit equal to the yield determined in the most recent 10-year Treasury Note auction. Although all Reserve Banks have the legal authority to conduct open-market operations, in practice only the Reserve Bank of New York does so. It manages the System Open Market Account (SOMA),

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3612-431: The U.S. Supreme Court stated, "Instrumentalities like the national banks or the federal reserve banks, in which there are private interests, are not departments of the government. They are private corporations in which the government has an interest." The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax-exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest

3698-505: The US, but there was nothing similar in the UK, whose own airlines were in the market for such a system. Apparently due largely to not-invented-here problems, Ferranti in the UK decided to develop an entirely new system to fill this need, instead of using the Canadian version. But by this time, Ferranti's UK computer divisions were themselves in turmoil. Their attempt to commercialize the Atlas design

3784-559: The barcode printed between them. The scanner searched for the bars in green light where the red appears as black. The red bars allowed electronic re-orientation of the scanning system to set-off a white flash which temporarily burned the barcode image unto the photosurface of the scanner. This system was then combined with an electronic tilt tray controller, then produced by Speaker Motion Systems of Milwaukee. The system could read labels passing at 500 ft/minute, 360 degrees of horizontal rotation and +/- 25 degrees of vertical slope. Sears took

3870-425: The commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan explains that, the "ownership" of the Reserve Banks by the commercial banks is symbolic; they do not exercise the proprietary control associated with the concept of ownership nor share, beyond the statutory dividend, in Reserve Bank "profits." ... Bank ownership and election at the base are therefore devoid of substantive significance, despite

3956-757: The core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The transformer universal EMF equation can be used to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz. Federal Reserve Bank A Federal Reserve Bank

4042-507: The core magnetomotive force cancels to zero. According to Faraday's law , since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its number of turns. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio. An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to

4128-456: The core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at

4214-400: The corresponding current ratio. The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance. The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies. (a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of (b) Unlike

4300-658: The cost of developing a production version was well beyond what the Royal Canadian Navy was able to afford. They attempted to sell the system to the United States Navy , but they were uninterested and the Canadians were forced to end the project. The US Navy later decided that they needed just such a system, having a rather unhappy experience with their Naval Tactical Data System in 1958. During this period, some time in 1951, Ferranti Canada also considered commercializing

4386-468: The degree of influence by private interests, the balancing of regional economic concerns, the prevention of financial panics, and the type of reserves used to back currency. A financial crisis known as the Panic of 1907 threatened several New York banks with failure, an outcome avoided through loans arranged by banker J. P. Morgan . Morgan succeeded in restoring confidence to the New York banking community, but

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4472-440: The electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel , or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost. Transformer losses arise from: Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround

4558-448: The equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits. With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I 0 equals transformer no-load current. The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains

4644-568: The first system but it was later sold to most of the major catalogue centres including Sears-Roebuck US - 11 centers, J.C. Penneys - 3 centers, Montgomery Wards, Aldens etc. A single workstation version model, the Datatriever 1000, with integrated electronic US post-office certified attached weigh scales and a label printer, sold 400 units including controlling computers (DEC PDP-8) to Spiegels on one contract for 1.5 times FPs total annual income. A slightly later development used hand held scanners to read

4730-424: The following series loop impedances of the model: In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R S and X S are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, ( N P / N S )  = a . Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model: R C and X M are collectively termed

4816-457: The following tests: open-circuit test , short-circuit test , winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test. If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal , the relationship for either winding between its rms voltage E rms of the winding, and the supply frequency f , number of turns N , core cross-sectional area A in m and peak magnetic flux density B peak in Wb/m or T (tesla)

4902-412: The ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with: (c) similar to an inductor , parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and

4988-465: The ideal transformer identity : where L {\displaystyle L} is winding self-inductance. By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity: An ideal transformer is linear , lossless and perfectly coupled . Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductance and zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. i p n p  −  i s n s  = 0). A varying current in

5074-443: The invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission , distribution , and utilization of alternating current electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect

5160-445: The limitations of early electric traction motors . Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies. Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of

5246-455: The load power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary. Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer. Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by

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5332-662: The lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage. Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel . The steel has

5418-593: The numerous models in this performance range, the FP-6000 would directly support multitasking , then known as multiprogramming , as well as be highly modular. The prototype machine was completed in 1962, and was delivered to the FRB in early 1963. Further sales proved difficult however. One was purchased by the DRB's station in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia , another by the Toronto Stock Exchange , one by Saskatchewan Power , and

5504-467: The only way to work with the DRB would be for free. Just such a project started soon after, when word of the Ferranti meeting reached Lt Jim Belyea, a researcher in the Royal Canadian Navy 's electrical labs (Electrical Engineer-in-Chief's Directorate). He had been proposing a completely automated system for ships to pass around tactical data from radar and sonar , to help organize the defence of

5590-452: The other. A small magnet glued to the disk responded to a magnetic pulse from a coil which surrounded the disk. The direction of current through the coil determined the side to display. A display system was sold to the Montreal and Canadian stock exchanges in 1964. The UK headquarters gave the invention little note, but it became somewhat successful in spite of this, and HQ eventually used it as

5676-578: The panic revealed weaknesses in the U.S. financial system, such that a private banker could dictate the terms of a bank's survival. In other parts of the country, clearing houses briefly issued their own money notes to carry on business. In response, Congress formed the National Monetary Commission to investigate options for providing currency and credit in future panics. Based on the Commission's findings and other proposals, Congress established

5762-444: The power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation , causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in

5848-401: The primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of

5934-415: The project ran in parallel to the original Orion for some time. (Orion II was much more successful, both technically and commercially, than its predecessor. Nearly 40 machines were delivered by the end of 1964.) With the experience gained during Orion II the engineers returned to Toronto convinced that ReserVec's design sold into the Orion's marketplace would be a commercial success. Once again approaching

6020-439: The ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2: where for a step-up transformer a < 1 and for a step-down transformer a > 1. By the law of conservation of energy , apparent , real and reactive power are each conserved in the input and output: where S {\displaystyle S} is apparent power and I {\displaystyle I} is current . Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote gives

6106-606: The same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction , discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil. Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic isolation between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-processing circuits. Since

6192-436: The same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with

6278-560: The same patented bar-codes. The volume of business was too big for FP to handle and the entire business was sold off to a new US company, Identicon, who eventually sold many more of these systems. All of the models were incorporated into the Simpson-Sears Montreal Fashion Center. With the electronics division empty, Ferranti-Packard was once again a major electrical vendor only. Over the years, many other specialty divisions were sold off or closed, and eventually all that

6364-840: The same state. In the 12th District, the Seattle Branch serves Alaska, and the San Francisco Bank serves Hawaii. New York, Richmond, and San Francisco are the only banks that oversee non- U.S. state territories. The System serves these territories as follows: the New York Bank serves the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the Richmond Bank serves the District of Columbia; the San Francisco Bank serves American Samoa, Guam, and

6450-471: The superficial appearance of private bank control that the formal arrangement creates. The Federal Reserve Banks offer various services to the federal government and the private sector: Historically the Reserve Banks compensated member banks for keeping reserves on deposit (and therefore unavailable for lending) by paying them a dividend from earnings, limited by law to 6 percent. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (EESA) of 2008 additionally authorized

6536-533: The system was later adapted for cheque sorting by the Federal Reserve Bank in New York , who took delivery of an almost identical machine in 1958, based on reading MICR digits instead of bar codes. This MICR-based concept was originally developed by SRI International in 1952 for their similar ERMA project, but they did not manage to actually deliver their machine until 1959. There was some talk of developing

6622-637: The transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with a small transformer. Transformers for higher frequency applications such as SMPS typically use core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses than those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite cores. The lower frequency-dependant losses of these cores often

6708-418: The transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action and, in accordance with Lenz's law , the secondary current so produced creates

6794-474: The wherewithal to support a full program of research on its own. In 1947, the Defense Research Board (DRB) was formed, and sent out a letter outlining their ideas for sharing research between the armed forces, industry and academia. The letter made its way to the desk of Vincent Ziani de Ferranti , the then-current CEO of the family-held British company. At the time, Ferranti in the UK was involved in

6880-781: The whole system being headquartered at the Eccles Building in Washington, D.C. The Federal Reserve Banks are the most recent institutions that the United States government has created to provide functions of a central bank. Prior institutions have included the First (1791–1811) and Second (1818–1824) Banks of the United States, the Independent Treasury (1846–1920) and the National Banking System (1863–1935). Several policy questions have arisen with these institutions, including

6966-556: Was also installed at the Chicago Board of Trade, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, World Trade Center, United Airlines baggage handling system at DFW airport, as well as Michigan, Illinois, Pennsylvania Departments of Transportation and New York Port Authority as changeable message signs for traffic control. It was also used for many sporting events such as horse racing, track and field events, as well as Olympic events. It

7052-527: Was also used as the game board display on Family Feud from 1976 to 1995. A later patented development was the first barcode scanner. Originally developed for Simpsons Sears catalog center in Toronto in 1968, the bar code was developed to minimize any increase in Customer picking ticket area. Sears Toronto was then printing 360,000/day. The system used two large pre-printed red bars which could carry normal text with

7138-658: Was dragging on, and meanwhile sales of their older Mercury were drying up. In order to address this, as well as move into a new market segment, they decided to launch a newer system aimed at the low-end of the market. The result was the Ferranti Orion , which used an entirely new circuitry system known as "Neuron". This proved to be somewhat of a disaster, and only 12 Orion I machines ever shipped (the first went to AB Turitz and Co., of Gothenburg, Sweden, in March 1963). Meanwhile, Ferranti-Packard decided they should set up production for

7224-504: Was left was the original Packard transformer division. It was this that VA Tech purchased, and which later came to be part of Siemens . The Archives of Ontario holds numerous Ferranti-Packard records that were transferred by Rolls-Royce in 1991, including textual records, photographs, technical drawings, audio reels, films and videocassettes. It also holds material donated in 2002 by Mr. Paul Coleman and in 2006 by Siemens Canada. The St. Catharines Museum and Welland Canals Centre also holds

7310-547: Was transferred to them under Executive Order 6102 . This gold was in turn transferred to the Treasury under the Gold Reserve Act of 1934 in exchange for gold certificates that may not be redeemed under current law. The Reserve Banks continue to report these certificates as assets, but they do not represent direct gold ownership and the Board of Governors has stated that "the Federal Reserve does not own gold." Although

7396-415: Was unable to arm itself. C.D. Howe , Minister of Armaments, started an ambitious plan to heavily industrialize the country, turning it almost overnight into what is today a G8 nation. Canada had entered World War II completely unprepared, and in the post-war era decided they would not allow this to happen again. However, as the art of war turned increasingly technical, it was clear that Canada did not have

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