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120-611: During the first three months of 1964, heavy fighting took place between Ethiopia and Somalia at several border points in the Ogaden , one of which was Ferfer. Ferfer was among the locations within Ethiopia that were still under Somali control after Somalia's defeat in the Ogaden War of 1977/78. The Ethiopian army maintains an important base in Ferfer. In June 2008, the border town was briefly seized by

240-572: A Cushitic ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and history. The East Cushitic Somali language is the shared mother tongue of ethnic Somalis, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are predominantly Sunni Muslim . Forming one of the largest ethnic groups on the continent, they cover one of the most expansive landmasses by

360-470: A chartered company . An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging that Baran fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration. With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century. However, unlike

480-461: A bid to control the population of the region during the 1963 Ogaden revolt , an Ethiopian Imperial Army division based out of Harar torched Somali villages and carried out mass killings of livestock. Watering holes were machine gunned by aircraft in order to control the nomadic Somalis by denying them access to water. Thousands of residents were driven out from the Ogaden into Somalia as refugees. At

600-562: A bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , dissolved

720-454: A central part in Somali culture and politics. Clan families are patrilineal , and are divided into clans, primary lineages or subclans, and dia -paying kinship groups. The lineage terms qabiil , qolo , jilib and reer are often interchangeably used to indicate the different segmentation levels. The clan represents the highest kinship level. It owns territorial properties and is typically led by

840-435: A clan-head or Sultan . Primary lineages are immediately descended from the clans, and are exogamous political units with no formally installed leader. They comprise the segmentation level that an individual usually indicates he or she belongs to, with their founding patriarch reckoned to between six and ten generations. The five major clan families are the traditionally nomadic pastoralist Dir , Isaaq , Darod , Hawiye and

960-628: A further report inclusive of Somali Region stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g. Ibadism , Quranism etc.). In the neighboring country of Somalia , 99.8% of the population is Muslim according to the Pew Research Center. The majority belong to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence . Sufism , the mystical sect of Islam, is also well established, with many local jama'a ( zawiya ) or congregations of

1080-662: A later date from the Arabian Peninsula in the 10th or 11th centuries. Sheikh Darod is asserted to have married a woman from the Dir (while some accounts say Hawiye ), thus establishing matrilateral ties with the Samaale family. The Isaaq clan trace paternal descent to the Islamic leader Ishaaq bin Ahmed al-Hashimi (Sheikh Isaaq). The Digil & Mirifle (Rahanweyn) trace their ancestry back to

1200-648: A length of two years. In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference had ended, the Scramble for Africa reached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the first Darawiish, an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from the European powers. The Dervish had their leaders, Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , Haji Sudi and Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman , who sought

1320-457: A location in the Somali Region of Ethiopia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ogaden Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled Ogadēn ; Somali : Ogaadeen , Amharic : ውጋዴ/ውጋዴን ) is one of the historical names used for the modern Somali Region . It is also natively referred to as Soomaali Galbeed ( lit.   ' Western Somalia ' ). The region forms

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1440-483: A position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially

1560-529: A regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains. Several ancient city-states, such as Opone , Essina , Sarapion , Nikon , Malao , Damo and Mosylon near Cape Guardafui , which competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo - Greco-Roman trade, also flourished in Somalia. Islam

1680-697: A result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from the Ottomans and Germans . The Ottoman government also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the German government promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to

1800-481: A robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front. The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman Mahamuud and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid who founded the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he

1920-705: A significant amount of arms from European powers. The large scale importation of European arms completely upset the balance of power between the Somalis and the Ethiopian Empire, as the colonial powers blocked Somalis from receiving firearms. However the Ethiopians were also defeated numerous times by poorly armed Somalis such as in 1890 near Imi where Makonnen's troops had suffered a large defeat to Somali warriors. A British hunter Colonel Swayne, who visited Imi in February 1893,

2040-491: A single ethnic group in Africa . According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. This ancient historical kingdom is where a great portion of their cultural traditions and ancestry are said to derive from. Somalis share many historical and cultural traits with other Cushitic peoples , especially with Lowland East Cushitic people, specifically

2160-516: A state in the Nugaal and began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history. The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year long Dervish rebellion , according to the consul-general James Hayes Sadler , was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of the Habr Yunis . The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by

2280-557: Is a Somali term that means "He who takes care of another". An alternative (possibly folk ) etymology analyses the name as a combination of the Harari word ūga ("road") and Aden , a city in Yemen , supposedly deriving from an ancient caravan route through the region connecting Harar to the Arabian Peninsula . During the new region's founding conference, which was held in Dire Dawa in 1992,

2400-515: Is a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic word for "wealthy" ( zāwamāl ), again referring to Somali riches in livestock. Alternatively, the ethnonym Somali is believed to have been derived from the Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors from ancient Egypt described by Herodotus . Asmach

2520-412: Is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali . One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the words soo and maal , which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region with northern Somalis imply it refers to go and milk in regards to the camel's milk, southern Somalis use the transliteration " sa' maal " which refers to cow's milk. This

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2640-482: Is part of the Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets ecoregion. It has been a historic habitat for the endangered African wild dog , Lycaon pictus ; However, this canid is thought by some to have been extirpated from Ogaden. The Ogaden is a plateau , with an elevation above sea level that ranges from 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) in the northwest, falling to about 300 metres (980 ft) along

2760-654: Is the Ogaden National Liberation Front under its Chairman Mohamed O. Osman, which is fighting against the Ethiopian government. Some Somalis who inhabit in the 'Ogaden' claimed that Ethiopian military kill civilians, destroy the livelihood of many of the ethnic Somalis and commit crimes against the nomads in the region. However, testimony before the United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs revealed massive brutality and killings by

2880-553: Is thought to have been their Egyptian name, with Automoli being a Greek derivative of the Hebrew word S’mali (meaning "on the left hand side"). A Tang Chinese document from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast — which was then part of a broader region in Northeast Africa known as Barbaria , in reference to the area's Barbars ( Cushitic ) inhabitants — as Po-pa-li . The first clear written reference of

3000-645: The Afar and the Saho . Ethnic Somalis are principally concentrated in Somalia (around 17.6 million), Somaliland (5.7 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Kenya (2.8 million), and Djibouti (534,000). Somali diasporas are also found in parts of the Middle East , North America , Western Europe , African Great Lakes region, Southern Africa and Oceania . Samaale , the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans ,

3120-559: The Amhara invaders and were scarcely integrated into the Ethiopian Empire . Following Somalia's independence in 1960, the Ogaden was rocked by waves of popular revolts which were brutally repressed by Emperor Haile Selassie's government - resulting in deep animosity developed towards the Amharas by the Somalis. In many towns, Somali people were barred from employment. During this period,

3240-683: The Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League (AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU). Somalis are ethnically of Cushitic ancestry , but have genealogical traditions of descent from various patriarchs associated with the spread of Islam. Being one tribe, they are segmented into various clan groupings, which are important kinship units that play

3360-432: The Arabian Peninsula . Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on Berbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day. Berbera was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from

3480-550: The British Military Administration , which had been in control of the Ogaden since WWII, commenced a withdrawal. This transition saw the replacement of British officials with Ethiopian counterparts between May and July of that year in a significant handover process. In the town of Jijiga , incoming Ethiopian authorities instructed the Somali Youth League (SYL) to remove their flag, as they had declared both

3600-592: The East and the West . In antiquity , the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices , items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans and Babylonians . According to most scholars,

3720-617: The Gulf of Aden . The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions. The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests. The new protectorates were thereafter managed by Vincenzo Filonardi through

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3840-505: The Karanle clans of Hawiye . There are few historical texts written about the people who lived in what is known today as the Somali Region , sometimes referred to as "The Ogaden" region of Ethiopia. The vast majority of the inhabitants today are Muslim and ethnically homogenous. In its early history, the Ogaden was inhabited by Harla , a now extinct people. Harla are linked to the Harari and Somali Ogaden clan . The region became one of

3960-600: The Macrobians , who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia . They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Achaemenid emperor Cambyses II , upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE , sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for

4080-672: The Middle Ages , several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade including the Ajuran Sultanate , which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Adal Sultanate , whose general Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey) was the first commander to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of the Ethiopian Empire , and the Sultanate of the Geledi , whose military dominance forced governors of

4200-475: The Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans. Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back

4320-698: The Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF). After the fall of the Derg regime , an ONLF a central committee was formed in January 1992, laying the foundation for an organized and cohesive organization. By the time Mengistu had fallen, the ONLF had significantly consolidated its position in the region. Since 1992, the Tigray Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) dominated EPRDF government sought to curb Somali demands for self-determination by influencing politics in

4440-611: The Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf . The Harla , an early group who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn, also erected various tumuli . These masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis ("proto-Somali"). Berbera was the most important port in the Horn of Africa between the 18th–19th centuries. For centuries, Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in

4560-613: The State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic , albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as president of

4680-564: The Stone Age , the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their respective industries and factories. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC . The stone implements from the Jalelo site in Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between

4800-479: The United States eventually persuaded the British to cede Ogaden to Ethiopia in 1948. The last remaining British controlled parts of Haud were transferred to Ethiopia in 1955. The population of the Ogaden did not perceive themselves to be Ethiopians and were deeply tied to Somalis in neighboring states. Somalis widely considered Ethiopian rule in the Ogaden to be a case of African colonial subjugation. In 1948,

4920-545: The Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila , ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa , Adal, Jamme and Laboo. In

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5040-646: The former Italian Somaliland to realize Greater Somalia which was supported by many Somalis. Following World War II , Somali leaders in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia repeatedly put forward demands for self-determination , only to be ignored by both Ethiopia and the United Nations . Ethiopia unsuccessfully pleaded before the London Conference of the Allied Powers to gain the Ogaden and Eritrea in 1945, but their persistent negotiations and pressure from

5160-448: The 15th and 16th centuries, but they halted in the mid-17th century, not resuming until Emperor Menelik's expansions at the end of the 19th century. The regional successor of Ifat and Adal, the Ajuran Sultanate , governed its territories from Qalafo along the upper Shabelle River in eastern Ogaden until its decline in the 17th century. During the pre-colonial era the Ogaden was neither under Ethiopian rule, nor Terra nullius , as it

5280-504: The 1992 elections, a mutual suspicion existed. Following the 1992 attack on Al-Itihaad , mistrust of the EPRDF within the ONLF greatly deepened. To take part in the upcoming 1992 regional elections the two existing Somali political entities in the Ogaden, the ONLF and Al-Itihaad Al-Islamiya (AIAI), organized themselves into different constituencies across the Ogaden. Later that year the Ethiopian government forces attacked AIAI's headquarters in

5400-604: The British Somaliland protectorate to Ethiopia in the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 . Ethiopian authorities have since then based their claims to the Ogaden upon the treaty and the exchange of letters which followed it. International law professor W. Michael Reisman, observed that, "as a matter of law and fact, the 1897 treaty was void because it presumed an authority which the Somalis had never accorded to Great Britain." The Somalis, he notes, had given no authority to

5520-618: The British to transfer Somali territory to another state. In fact, the British had committed to protecting Somali territory, the primary reason for the Protectorate, and in attempting to transfer the land to Ethiopia, they were acting without competence, exceeding their jurisdiction, and concluding an agreement without the participation of the central party. Furthermore, Reisman notes that even had treaty originally been valid, it would have been invalidated by Ethiopia's failure to commit to key legal obligations. As Emperor Menelik II continued his campaign of indiscriminate raiding and attacks against

5640-420: The Ethiopian Empire's domain as confined by the River Awash . Sir Richard Francis Burton's famous 1856 exploration book First Footsteps in East Africa, makes no mention of an Ethiopian presence while describing his time in the Ogaden. In 1887, Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II conquered the city of Harar during his efforts to expand the empire and in 1891, announced a programme of ambitious colonialism to

5760-451: The European powers. This marked the start of a tentative yet violent invasion into the Ogaden region. In the first phase of Ethiopian penetration into the region, Menelik dispatched his troops from occupied Harar on frequent raids that terrorized the region. Indiscriminate killing and looting was commonplace before the raiding soldiers returned to their bases with stolen livestock. Repeatedly between 1890 and 1900, Ethiopian raiding parties into

5880-400: The French Catholic Mission at Berbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes. The Dervish movement successfully stymied British forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region. As

6000-420: The Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. The Macrobians were

6120-445: The ONLF rebels, which the Ethiopian government labels "terrorists." The extent of this war can't be established due to a media blockade in the 'Ogaden' region. Some international rights organizations have accused the Ethiopian government of committing abuses and crimes that "violate laws of war," as a recent report by the Human Rights Watch indicates. Other reports have claimed that Ethiopia has bombed, killed, and raped many Somalis in

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6240-430: The Ogaden caused devastation. Imperial military expeditions dispatched into the Ogaden engaged in the torching of Somali settlements, and foreign travelers in the region widely reported countless stories of suffering at the hands of the Abyssinian invaders. Menelik's expansion into Somali inhabited territory coincided with the European colonial advances in the Horn of Africa , during which the Ethiopian Empire imported

6360-526: The Ogaden during the early 1980s noted widespread evidence of a 'dual society', with the Somali inhabitants of the region strongly identified as 'Western Somalis'. Artificial droughts and famine were induced by the Derg regime to break down Somali opposition to Ethiopian rule in the Ogaden. In the early 1980s the Ethiopian government rendered the region a vast military zone, engaging in indiscriminate aerial bombardments and forced resettlement programs. During 1981 there were an estimated 70,000 Ethiopian troops in

6480-525: The Ogaden during this period, and were recognized by Britain and Italy as political refugees. In the mid-1950s, Ethiopia for the first time controlled the Ogaden and began incorporating it into the empire. In the 25 years following the commencement of Ethiopian rule in this era, hardly a single paved road, electrical line, school or hospital was built. The Ethiopian presence in the region was always colonial in nature, primarily consisting of soldiers and tax collectors. The Somalis were never treated as equals by

6600-551: The Ogaden has suffered from increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, which has led to an increasing frequency of major droughts: in 1984–85; 1994; and most recently in 1999–2000, during which pastoralists claim to have lost 70–90 percent of their cattle. It also includes another region in the north known as Haud . 7°17′N 44°18′E  /  7.28°N 44.30°E  / 7.28; 44.30 Somali people The Somali people ( Somali : Soomaalida , Osmanya : 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖 , Wadaad : صومالِدَ ‎) are

6720-448: The Ogaden region, while the United States continues to arm Ethiopia in the United States' ongoing War on Terror in the Horn of Africa . The Somali Region , the second largest region in Ethiopia is around 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi), and borders Djibouti , Kenya and Somalia . Important towns include Jijiga , Degahbur , Gode , Kebri Dahar , Fiq , Shilabo , Kelafo , Werder and Danan . The Ogaden

6840-461: The Ogaden that were used by Somali nomads’ herds as grazing areas. Under new laws, Somali nomads had no recognized claim to these territory and were harassed by the military as a result. Wells frequented by nomads were poisoned, and new ones were created for the incoming migration of Amhara farmers and imperial army troops concurrently launched economic warfare on the nomadic way of life by devastating massive herds of invaluable livestock. Throughout

6960-439: The Ogaden, supported by 10,000 Cuban army troops who garrisoned the regions towns. In the years following the 1977–1978 Ogaden War , many supporters of the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) became disillusioned with the organizations increasing reliance on Mogadishu and were frustrated by international portrayals of the struggle in the Ogaden as merely a border matter between Ethiopia and Somalia. They would go on to form

7080-420: The Somali al-Shabaab . Based on figures from the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, Ferfer has an estimated total population of 4,411 of whom 2,418 are men and 1,993 are women. The 1997 census reported this town had a total population of 2,956, 1,597 being men and 1,359 women. All of the inhabitants of this town were Somalis . It is the largest settlement in the Ferfer woreda . This article about

7200-455: The Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as the president of the Somali Republic and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. The constitution was rejected by the people of Somaliland. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister,

7320-541: The Somali border. The Ogaden is known for its oil and gas reserves, although development efforts have been hindered by instability prevailing in the area. The origins of the term Ogaden has been an elusive question. It is usually attributed to the Somali clan of the same name , referring only to their land originally, and eventually expanding to encompass most parts of the modern Somali Region of eastern Ethiopia . The Ogaden clan's name itself comes from their progenitor, Abdirahman Absame's nickname of Ogaadeen, which

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7440-435: The Somali lands it had turned over. The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to the Kenyan government despite an informal plebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic. A referendum was held in neighboring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland ) in 1958, on

7560-411: The Somali population by Somali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa , Hafun and Merca , which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam , and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. The Sultanate of Ifat , led by

7680-474: The Somalis of the Ogaden region between 1890 and 1899, Somali clans residing in the plains of Jigjiga were in particular targeted. The escalating frequency and violence of the raids resulted in Somalis consolidating behind the Dervish Movement under the lead of Sayyid Mohamed Abdullah Hassan . As the Ethiopian Empire began expanding into Somali territories at the start of the 1890s, the town of Jigjiga came under intermittent military occupation until 1900. At

7800-409: The Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali Republic state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between

7920-437: The WSLF and Somali National Army in early 1978 did not result in the pacification of the Ogaden. At the end of 1978 the first major outflow of refugees numbering in the hundreds of thousands headed for Somalia, and were bombed and strafed during the exodus by the Ethiopian military. During 1979, the Western Somali Liberation Front persisted in its resistance, regaining control of rural areas. Foreign correspondents who visited

8040-426: The ancient Land of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut . The pyramidal structures , temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia may date from this period. In classical antiquity ,

8160-498: The city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far as Harar and the Ogaden . In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities. Sharmarke's influence

8280-408: The condition — first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960. To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave

8400-420: The earliest footholds for the spread of Islam into Africa. At the time, rivalries between the established Muslims in the Ogaden were recurring with those of the littoral in Zeila. The Ogaden region was part of the Ifat Sultanate in the 13th century and later the Adal Sultanate in the 15th century. The city of Harar , serving as the effective capital of Ogaden, became a key administrative center for Adal. In

8520-461: The earliest known rock art on the African continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as the Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman. Inscriptions have been found beneath many of the rock paintings, but archaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing. During

8640-468: The eastern portion of Ethiopia and borders Somalia . It also includes another region to the north known as Haud . The Ogaden is a vast plateau located to the south and southeast of the Ethiopian Highlands , and is overwhelmingly inhabited by Somali people . It represents the westernmost region inhabited by the Somalis in the Horn of Africa . It is largely a semi-arid region and encompasses

8760-692: The end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market.” As a tributary of Mocha , which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia,

8880-518: The eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached

9000-596: The first half of the 16th century, the Ethiopian–Adal War broke out. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi , the Imam of Adal, launched a jihad against Abyssinia in response to escalating Abyssinian incursions into Muslim territories. Repeated military expeditions from the highlands into the southeast over several decades prior significantly unified the Somali and other Muslim communities in the region, who then joined Imam Ahmed's jihad. Abyssinian attacks were frequent and intense during

9120-402: The first time in 13 years. Then, on 23 September 1948, following the withdrawal of British forces and the appointment of Ethiopian district commissioners, areas east of Jijiga were placed under Ethiopian governance for the first time in history. The SYL was banned and an attempt was made to ban all Somali political activity in the region. Tens of thousands of Somalis fled the Ethiopian military in

9240-419: The following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories. The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of its ports specifically Port of Bosaso which could grant them access to the strategically important Suez Canal and

9360-605: The founders of Darod, Dir and Isaaq as well as the Abgaal subclan of Hawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people. According to data from the Pew Research Center , the creed breakdown of Muslims in the Somali-majority Djibouti is as follows: 77% adhere to Sunnism , 8% are non-denominational Muslim , 2% are Shia and 13% declined to answer, and

9480-480: The government's war against AIAI ended in a ceasefire soon before the elections. During the December 1992 elections for District Five (what later became the Somali Region ), the ONLF won 80% of the seats of the local parliament. Though the war between Al-Itihaad and the government had ended before the election, AIAI did not participate. During the new region's founding conference, which was held in Dire Dawa in 1992,

9600-463: The hide shield and spear, while their oppressors are, as has already been recorded, armed with modern rifles, and they are by no means scrupulous concerning the use of them in asserting their authority...The Abyssinians themselves have no more claim (except that of might) to dominate the wells than a Fiji Islander would have to interfere with a London waterworks company. In 1897 in order to appease Menelik's expansionist policy Britain ceded almost half of

9720-454: The interior, such as livestock , coffee , frankincense , myrrh , acacia gum , saffron , feathers , ghee , hide (skin) , gold and ivory . Historically, the port of Berbera was controlled indigenously between the mercantile Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the Habar Awal . According to a trade journal published in 1856, Berbera was described as “the freest port in

9840-486: The late 1970s, internal unrest in the Ogaden region continued as the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) waged a guerrilla war against the Ethiopian government. Ethiopia and Somalia fought the Ogaden War during 1977–78 over the region and its peoples. After the war, an estimated 800,000 people crossed the border into Somalia where they would be displaced as refugees for the next 15 years. The defeat of

9960-422: The latter is an exonym with double suffixes. The hypernym of the term Somali from a geopolitical sense is Horner and from an ethnic sense, it is Cushite . The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from Southern Ethiopia since 1000 BC or from the Arabian Peninsula in the eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts

10080-538: The massacre of 150 Ethiopian troops in January 1915. In the 1920s and 1930s, there were no permanent Ethiopian settlements or administration in any Somali inhabited land, only military encampments. Due to native hostility, the region was barely occupied by Ethiopian authorities, who exerted little to no presence east of Jijiga , until the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission in 1934 and the Wal Wal incident in 1935. It

10200-520: The mere fact of its possession by that Soumaulee chief, and as this change occurred whilst I was in Abyssinia, I shall not say anything more upon the subject. However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty Somali Matchlock men and two cannons to target Zeila and depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at

10320-431: The naming of the region became a divisive issue, because almost 30 different ethnic Somali clans live in the region. The ONLF sought to name the region 'Ogadenia', whilst the non-Ogadeni Somali clans who live in the same region opposed this move. As noted by Abdul Majid Hussein , the naming of the region where there are several Somali clans as 'Ogadenia' following the name of a single clan would have been divisive. Finally,

10440-425: The naming of the region became a divisive issue. Almost 30 Somali clans live in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. The ONLF sought to name the region 'Ogadenia', whilst the non-Ogadeni Somali clans who live in the same region opposed this move. As noted by Abdul Majid Hussein , the naming of the region where there are several Somali clans as 'Ogadenia' following the name of a single clan would have been divisive. Finally,

10560-419: The newly independent Somali Republic and the Ethiopian Empire under Haile Selassie were on the verge of full-scale war over the Ogaden issue, particularly in 1961 and in the border war of 1964 . Though the newly formed Somali government and army was weak, it had felt pressured and obliged to respond to what Somali citizens widely perceived as oppression of its brethren by an Ethiopian military occupation. In

10680-518: The original homeland of the Somali people in Somaliland region, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of the Horn of Africa for the last 7000 years. Ancient rock paintings , which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found in Somaliland region. These engravings depict early life in the territory. The most famous of these is the Laas Geel complex . It contains some of

10800-484: The parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with

10920-496: The party and its emblem as unlawful. The SYL defied this directive, leading to the flag being machine-gunned by an armored vehicle. This event escalated following the killing of a police officer after a grenade was thrown of the roof of the SYL headquarters. The police responded by firing into a crowd of protesters killing 25. Following this incident, Ethiopian administration resumed in Jijiga for

11040-630: The patriarch Sab. Both Samaale and Sab are supposed to have descended from a common ancestor with origins in the Arabian Peninsula . Contemporary genetic studies indicate that Somalis in general do not possess any noticeable Arab ancestry. The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and northern folklore. A comprehensive genealogy of Somali clans can be found in Abbink (2009), providing detailed family trees and historical background information. The tombs of

11160-436: The peak of the 1963 revolt, the Somali insurgents fighting for self-determination under the banner of 'Nasrallah' controlled nearly 70 percent of the Ogaden region. For nearly a year after the 1964 war, most major Somali towns in the Ogaden were under direct military administration , and the Ethiopian government also introduced a new policy of encouraging Amhara farmers to resettle in the valuable pastureland's available in

11280-524: The plains between the border of Somalia and Ethiopia, extending towards the southeastern highlands, where larger cities like Harar and Dire Dawa are located near. The primary river in the region is the Shebelle , which is fed by temporary seasonal streams. Towards the southwestern edge of the Ogaden is the source of the Ganale Doria River , which joins Dawa River to become the major Jubba River on

11400-598: The polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991). British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as

11520-523: The port of Zeila had seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila when Sharmarke Ali Saleh , who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida. Allee Shurmalkee [Ali Sharmarke] has since my visit either seized or purchased this town, and hoisted independent colours upon its walls; but as I know little or nothing save

11640-417: The region killing several high ranking figures. Following the attack, Al-Itihaad quickly regrouped and declared a jihad against the Ethiopian military presence in the region. As fighting between AIAI and the Ethiopian military raged throughout 1992, a serious internal debate and two factions emerged within the ONLF over whether to join the war. One wing argued that it was clear that the new Ethiopian government

11760-418: The region was named the Somali region. The 1995 general elections were boycotted by the majority of the ONLF, Al-Itihaad and large segments of the Ogaden population due to governments heavy handed interference in the political process. Some ONLF members who opposed the boycott participated in the elections, and performed poorly. Major discontent was provoked by the EPRDF led government after it had moved

11880-588: The region was named the Somali region. The inhabitants are predominantly ethnic Somalis , of almost 30 clans. The Ogaden clan of the Darod constitute the majority in the region, and were enlisted in the Ogaden National Liberation Movement, which is why the region is associated with the Ogaden clan. Other Somali clans in the region are Sheekhaal , Marehan , Isaaq , Geri Koombe Gadabuursi , Issa , Massare, Gabooye, Degodia, Jidle, as well as

12000-454: The region. To this end the central government portrayed the ESDL as a pan-Somali organization in contrast to the Ogaden clan dominated ONLF. While many Somalis saw the ESDL as a merely an extension of the Ethiopian government, the strategy put the ONLF under greater pressure. Despite an agreement between the central government and the ONLF to cooperate on security and administration in the lead up to

12120-492: The same period Ethiopian Emperor Menelik, who was legally armed with rifles by European powers through the port cities of Djibouti and Massawa , began expanding into Somali inhabited territories . British colonial administrator Francis Barrow Pearce writes the following concerning the Ethiopian raids into the Ogaden: The Somalis, although good and brave fighting men, cannot help themselves. They have no weapons except

12240-492: The sedentary agropastoralist Rahanweyn . Minor Somali clans include Asharaf . The Dir , Hawiye , Gardere ( Gaalje'el , Degodia , Garre ), Hawadle and Ajuran trace agnatic origins to the patriarch Samaale . The Darod have separate paternal traditions of descent through Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti (Sheikh Darod), who is said to have Banu Hashim origins through Aqiil Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib . He arrived at

12360-414: The sobriquet Somali dates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian Emperor Yeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose a hymn celebrating a military victory over the Sultanate of Ifat . Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people. Somalis overwhelmingly prefer the demonym Somali over the incorrect Somalian since the former is an endonym, while

12480-497: The southern limits and the Wabi Shebelle valley. The areas with altitudes between 1,400 and 1,600 metres (4,600 and 5,200 ft) are characterised as semi-arid , receiving as much as 500–600 millimetres (20–24 in) of rainfall annually. More typical of the Ogaden is an average annual rainfall of 350 millimetres (14 in) and less. The landscape consists of dense shrubland, bush grassland and bare hills. In more recent years,

12600-584: The southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians. Following World War II , Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somalia as protectorates . In 1945, during the Potsdam Conference , the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on

12720-414: The start of the year, Abyssinian troops occupied the town with the construction of a fort in the outskirts. Subsequently, the anti-colonial Dervish Movement led by Sayid Mohamed Abdullah Hassan had its first major battle when it attacked the Ethiopian forces occupying Jigjiga to free livestock that had been looted from the local population. The Ethiopian hold on Ogaden at the start of the 20th century

12840-573: The state capital from Gode to Jigjiga in 1994. Following the boycott, the government went so far as to form another organization called 'New ONLF'. The 'New ONLF' and ESDL won the 1995 elections and then merged into the Somali People's Democratic Party (SPDP). In 2007, the Ethiopian Army launched a military crackdown in Ogaden after Ogaden rebels killed dozens of civilian staff workers and guards at an Ethiopian oil field. The main rebel group

12960-460: The successful deployment of the newly-formed Royal Air Force by the British government . Majeerteen Sultanate was founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud . His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained

13080-476: The two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British ceded official control of the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and

13200-623: The various tariiqa or Sufi orders. The constitution of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted. There are some nobles who believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to Muhammad's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for

13320-418: The world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.”: “The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to

13440-736: The years leading up to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935, the Ethiopian hold on the Ogaden remained tenuous. After the Italian conquest of Ethiopia in 1936, Ogaden was attached to Italian Somaliland , becoming the Somalia Governorate within the new colony of Italian East Africa . Following the British conquest of this colony , the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement placed Ogaden under temporary British control . The British sought to unite Ogaden with British Somaliland and

13560-536: Was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn being built before the Qiblah faced towards Mecca . The town of Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. Consequently the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam. The peaceful conversion of

13680-752: Was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of Harar Abu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents in Harar , Sharmarke persuaded the son of Sahle Selassie , ruler of Shewa , to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for

13800-421: Was not serious about self-rule and democracy, so the armed struggle should be resumed. The opposing side argued that the government should still be given a chance considering the upcoming regional elections slated for December 1992. It was also noted that the organization only possessed a small military wing. Eventually the argument to refrain from joining the war and struggle through democratic means prevailed, and

13920-431: Was occupied by organized Somali communities. Independent historical accounts are unanimous that previous to the penetration into the region in the late 1880s, Somali clans were free of Ethiopian and Shewan control. It has been observed that geographers mapping out the continent of Africa for the British government in the mid to late 1800s made no reference of any Ethiopians in the Ogaden, and maps from before 1884 drew

14040-423: Was only after 1934 when the Anglo-Ethiopian boundary commission attempted to demarcate the border, did the Somalis who had been transferred to the Ethiopian Empire during the 1897 treaty realize what had happened. This long period of ignorance about the transfer of their regions was facilitated by the lack of 'any semblance' of effective control by the Somalis to indicate that they were being annexed by Ethiopia. In

14160-489: Was shown "the remains of the bivouac of an enormous Abyssinian army which had been defeated some two or three years before." Before the emergence of the anti-colonial Dervish movement in the 20th century, Somalis had limited access to firearms. When European colonial powers began to exert influence in the Horn of Africa, the Brussels Conference Act of 1890 imposed an arms embargo on the Somali population. During

14280-406: Was tenuous, and administration in the region was "sketchy in the extreme". Sporadic tax raids into the region often failed and Ethiopian administrators and military personnel only resided in Harar and Jijiga . Control over the region was expressed through intermittent raids and expeditions that aimed to seize Somali livestock as tribute. Attempts at taxation in the region were called off following

14400-447: Was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist. In late 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate known as Italian Somalia . His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate

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