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74-579: The Fedora Repository open source software is a project supported by the DuraSpace not-for-profit organization. The software has its origins in the Flexible Extensible Digital Object Repository Architecture (i.e., Fedora) which was originally designed and developed by researchers at Cornell University. Fedora is an architecture for storing, managing, and accessing digital content in the form of digital objects inspired by

148-436: A PEGylated lipid nanoparticle drug delivery (LNP) system. Once the compound is inside a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell's endoplasmic reticulum . The mRNA-1273 is encoded to trigger the cell into making a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. The vaccine encodes a version of the spike protein with a modification called 2P, in which the protein includes two stabilizing mutations in which

222-478: A phase   III clinical trial using two 100-μg doses administered 29 days apart. In July 2020, Moderna announced in a preliminary report that its Operation Warp Speed candidate had led to production of neutralizing antibodies in healthy adults in phase   I clinical testing . "At the 100-microgram dose, the one Moderna is advancing into larger trials, all 15 patients experienced side effects, including fatigue, chills, headache, muscle pain, and pain at

296-403: A 15-minute observation period after injection. Delayed cutaneous reactions at injection sites resulting in rash-like erythemas have also been observed in rare cases but are not considered serious or contraindications to subsequent vaccination. The incidence rate for local adverse erythema is about 10.8%. In 1.9% of cases, redness may extend to a size of 100   mm or greater. In June 2021,

370-560: A cooperation among Bell Labs , General Electric and MIT , which DARPA supported by funding Project MAC at MIT with an initial two-million-dollar grant. DARPA supported the evolution of the ARPANET (the first wide-area packet switching network), Packet Radio Network, Packet Satellite Network and ultimately, the Internet and research in the artificial intelligence fields of speech recognition and signal processing, including parts of Shakey

444-430: A general-purpose management layer for digital objects, and containers that aggregate mime-typed datastreams (e.g., digital images, XML files, metadata). Out-of-the-box Fedora includes the necessary software tools to ingest, manage, and provide basic delivery of objects with few or no custom disseminators, or can be used as a backend to a more monolithic user interface. Fedora supports ingest and export of digital objects in

518-541: A general-purpose management layer for digital objects. Object management is based on content models that represent data objects (units of content) or collections of data objects. The objects contain linkages between datastreams (internally managed or external content files), metadata (inline or external), system metadata (including a PID – persistent identifier – which is unique to the repository), and behaviors that are themselves code objects that provide bindings or links to disseminators (software processes that can be used with

592-641: A number of new technologies that were developed within the framework of the GXV-T program. The goal of this program is to create a lightly armored combat vehicle of not very large dimensions, which, due to maneuverability and other tricks, can successfully resist modern anti-tank weapon systems. In September 2020, DARPA and the US Air Force announced that the Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) are ready for free-flight tests within

666-428: A partnership with Swiss vaccine manufacturer Lonza Group , to supply 300   million doses per annum. In May 2020, Moderna began a phase   IIa clinical trial recruiting six hundred adult participants to assess safety and differences in antibody response to two doses of its candidate vaccine, mRNA-1273, a study expected to complete in 2021. In July 2020, Moderna scientists published preliminary results of

740-469: A standard medical refrigerator of 2–8 °C (36–46 °F) for up to thirty days or −20 °C (−4 °F) for up to four months, whereas the Pfizer-BioNTech candidate requires ultracold freezer storage between −80 and −60 °C (−112 and −76 °F). Low-income countries usually have cold chain capacity for only standard refrigerator storage, not ultracold freezer storage. In February 2021,

814-533: A variety of XML formats. This enables interchange of objects between Fedora and other applications, as well as facilitating digital preservation and archiving. The Fedora Project is currently supported by the DuraSpace organization. DARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for

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888-553: A whole series of X planes over the next 10 years. Between 2014 and 2016, DARPA shepherded the first machine-to-machine computer security competition, the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC), bringing a group of top-notch computer security experts to search for security vulnerabilities , exploit them, and create fixes that patch those vulnerabilities in a fully automated fashion. It is one of DARPA prize competitions to spur innovations. In June 2018, DARPA leaders demonstrated

962-464: Is Stefanie Tompkins . As of 2021 , their mission statement is "to make pivotal investments in breakthrough technologies for national security". The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was suggested by the President's Scientific Advisory Committee to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a meeting called after the launch of Sputnik. ARPA was formally authorized by President Eisenhower in 1958 for

1036-444: Is an mRNA sequence containing a total of 4101 nucleotides that encodes the full-length SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein, with two mutations (K986P and V987P) designed to stabilize the pre-fusion conformation. The sequence is further optimized by: A putative sequence of the vaccine has been published on a forum for professional virologists, obtained by direct sequencing of residual vaccine material in used vials. The vaccine mRNA

1110-586: Is credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Some young computer scientists left the universities to startups and private research laboratories such as Xerox PARC . Between 1976 and 1981, DARPA's major projects were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, tactical armor and anti-armor programs, infrared sensing for space-based surveillance, high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense, antisubmarine warfare, advanced cruise missiles, advanced aircraft, and defense applications of advanced computing. Many of

1184-440: Is dissolved in an aqueous buffer containing tromethamine , tromethamine hydrochloride , sodium acetate , and sucrose . The mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles that stabilize the mRNA and facilitate its entry into cells. The nanoparticles are manufactured from the following lipids : Moderna is relying extensively on contract manufacturing organizations to scale up its vaccine manufacturing process. The first step of

1258-597: Is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles . In August and September 2022, bivalent versions of the vaccine (Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine, Bivalent) containing elasomeran/elasomeran 0-omicron (Spikevax Bivalent Zero/Omicron) were authorized for use as booster doses in individuals aged 18 or older in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, the European Union, and the United States. The second component of

1332-614: Is stable. The study also found that cross-reactive T cells acquired during infection with other coronaviruses that cause the common cold increased the response to the vaccine. Moderna and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases began a phase   III trial in the US in July 2020, with a plan to enroll and assign thirty-thousand volunteers to two groups – one group receiving two 100-μg doses of mRNA-1273 vaccine and

1406-516: Is the first product from Moderna that has been authorized by the FDA. In June 2022, the EUA was expanded to include people aged six months through sixteen years of age. In April 2023, the authorization for the original, monovalent, version of the vaccine in the US was withdrawn. As of April 2023, only the bivalent (Original and Omicron BA.4/BA.5) version of the vaccine is authorized in the US. In December 2020,

1480-535: Is used to provide protection against infection by the SARS‑;CoV‑2 virus in order to prevent COVID‑19. The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection into the deltoid muscle of the arm. The initial course consists of two doses. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an interval of eight weeks between doses. A third, fourth, or fifth dose can be added in some countries. Evidence of vaccine efficacy starts about two weeks after

1554-580: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the military space programs to the individual services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and Project AGILE ( counterinsurgency R&D) programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences , and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE programs formed

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1628-532: The US Department of Health and Human Services . BARDA funded 100% of the cost of bringing the vaccine to FDA licensure. The United States government provided $ 2.5   billion in total funding for the Moderna COVID‑;19 vaccine (mRNA-1273). Private donors also made contributions to the vaccine's development. The Dolly Parton COVID-19 Research Fund contributed $ 1   million. In March 2020,

1702-668: The personal computer and the internet on the list of innovations for which DARPA can claim at least partial credit." Its track record of success has inspired governments around the world to launch similar research and development agencies. DARPA is independent of other military research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA comprises approximately 220 government employees in six technical offices, including nearly 100 program managers, who together oversee about 250 research and development programs. The agency's current director, appointed in March 2021,

1776-674: The phase   I human trial of mRNA-1273 began in partnership with the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases . In April, the US Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) allocated up to $ 483   million for Moderna's vaccine development. Plans for a phase   II dosing and efficacy trial to begin in May were approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Moderna signed

1850-499: The 95% confidence interval . Effectiveness is generally expected to slowly decrease over time. In August 2021, results from a study suggested that the effectiveness against infection decreased from 91% ( 81 – 96% ) to 66% ( 26 – 84% ) when the Delta variant became predominant in the US, which may be due to unmeasured and residual confounding related to a decline in vaccine effectiveness over time. Limited data are available on

1924-600: The Adaptive Suspension Vehicle (ASV) nicknamed the "Walker" at the Ohio State University , under a research contract from DARPA. The vehicle was 17 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 10.5 feet high, and had six legs to support its three-ton aluminum body, in which it was designed to carry cargo over difficult terrains. However, DARPA lost interest in the ASV, after problems with cold-weather tests. On February 4, 2004,

1998-798: The Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) or Hypersonic Research Program. The Strategic Computing Program enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the Vietnam War . In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites ( LIGHTSAT ) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor. In 1981, two engineers, Robert McGhee and Kenneth Waldron, started to develop

2072-491: The Fedora Repository project that re-implemented Fedora as open source software. Since then, several modifications have been made to the architecture, and in late 2005, version 2.1 was released. Fedora defines a set of abstractions for expressing digital objects, asserting relationships among digital objects, and linking "behaviors" (i.e., services) to digital objects. In 2003 Red Hat, Inc. applied for trademark status for

2146-550: The Kahn and Wilensky Framework. Fedora began as a DARPA and National Science Foundation funded research project at Cornell University's Digital Library Research Group in 1997, where the first reference implementation was written in Java using a CORBA-based distributed object approach. The University of Virginia began experimenting with the Cornell software and later joined with Cornell to establish

2220-463: The Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine was under evaluation for emergency authorization or approval by multiple countries which would enable rapid rollout of the vaccine in the United Kingdom, the European Union (EU), Canada, and the United States. In December 2020, the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine was authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under an emergency use authorization (EUA) for people aged 18 years of age and older. This

2294-563: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) between December 2020, and March 2021, on nearly 4   thousand health care personnel, first responders , and other essential and frontline workers concluded that under real-world conditions, mRNA vaccine effectiveness of full immunization (14 days or more after second dose) was 90% against SARS-CoV-2 infections, regardless of symptoms, and vaccine effectiveness of partial immunization (14 days or more after first dose but before second dose)

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2368-662: The US CDC confirmed that myocarditis or pericarditis occurs in about 13 of every 1 million young people, mostly male and over the age of 16, who received the Moderna or the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine . Most affected individuals recover quickly with adequate treatment and rest. Additional side effects include extensive swelling of the vaccinated limb. Moderna's technology uses a nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) compound codenamed mRNA-1273. The mRNA-1273 drug delivery system uses

2442-641: The agency shut down its so called "LifeLog Project". The project's aim would have been, "to gather in a single place just about everything an individual says, sees or does". On October 28, 2009, the agency broke ground on a new facility in Arlington County, Virginia a few miles from The Pentagon . In fall 2011, DARPA hosted the 100-Year Starship Symposium with the aim of getting the public to start thinking seriously about interstellar travel. On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced that it planned to build new X-planes with NASA 's plan setting to create

2516-494: The agency's research portfolio, and two additional offices that manage special projects. All offices report to the DARPA director, including: A 1991 reorganization created several offices which existed throughout the early 1990s: A 2010 reorganization merged two offices: A list of DARPA's active and archived projects is available on the agency's website. Because of the agency's fast pace, programs constantly start and stop based on

2590-441: The datastreams). Content models can be thought of as containers that give a useful shape to information poured into them; if the information fits the container, it can immediately be used in predefined ways. Fedora supports two types of access services: a management client for ingest, maintenance, and export of objects; or via API hooks for customized web-based access services built on either HTTP or SOAP. A Fedora Repository provides

2664-543: The development of emerging technologies for use by the military. Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA ), the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand

2738-501: The early explorers' discoveries. TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system." During the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The agency

2812-544: The enrollment of 30,000 participants needed for its phase   III trial. The US National Institutes of Health announced in November 2020, that overall trial results were positive. Since September 2020, Moderna has used Roche Diagnostics ' Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 S test, authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under an emergency use authorization (EUA) in November 2020. According to an independent supplier of clinical assays in microbiology, "this will facilitate

2886-413: The first dose. High efficacy is achieved with full immunization, two weeks after the second dose, and was evaluated at 94.1%: at the end of the vaccine study that led to emergency authorization in the US, there were eleven cases of COVID‑19 in the vaccine group (out of 15,181 people) versus 185 cases in the placebo group (15,170 people). Moreover, there were zero cases of severe COVID‑19 in

2960-563: The first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $ 250 million. It was Ruina who hired J. C. R. Licklider as the first administrator of the Information Processing Techniques Office , which played a vital role in creation of ARPANET , the basis for the future Internet. Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand

3034-633: The foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance , and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar , infrared sensing, and x-ray / gamma ray detection. ARPA at this point (1959) played an early role in Transit (also called NavSat) a predecessor to the Global Positioning System (GPS). "Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune

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3108-540: The frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements. The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996. The Economist has called DARPA "the agency that shaped the modern world," with technologies like " Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine ... weather satellites , GPS , drones , stealth technology , voice interfaces ,

3182-596: The frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense , and nuclear test detection. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to

3256-502: The initial trials used to obtain the emergency use authorization, though trials in those populations were expected to be performed in 2021. In March 2021, in order to increase the span of vaccination beyond adults, Moderna started the clinical trials of vaccines on children age 6-months to 11-years-old in the US and in Canada (KidCove), in addition to the existing and fully-enrolled study on 12-17 year-olds (TeenCOVE). As of December 2020,

3330-536: The issuance of an EUA by the FDA. In February 2021, results from phase   III clinical trial were published in the New England Journal of Medicine , indicating 94% efficacy in preventing COVID‑19 infection. Side effects included flu-like symptoms, such as pain at the injection site, fatigue, muscle pain , and headache. The clinical trial is ongoing and is set to conclude in late 2022. Pregnant and breastfeeding women were also excluded from

3404-681: The jurisdiction, it is authorized for use in humans aged six months, twelve years, or eighteen years and older. It provides protection against COVID-19 , which is caused by infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is designed to be administered in two or three 0.5- mL doses given by intramuscular injection , primarily into the deltoid muscle, at an interval of at least 28 days apart. The World Health Organization advises an eight-week interval between doses to optimize efficacy. Additional booster doses are approved in some regions to maintain immunity. Clinical trials and real-world data have demonstrated

3478-485: The latest updates. The safety profile of the vaccine is favorable, with common side effects including injection site pain, fatigue, and headaches. Severe reactions like anaphylaxis are exceedingly rare. Concerns regarding myocarditis , have been identified but are typically mild and manageable. The vaccine's formulation utilizes mRNA technology, encapsulated within lipid nanoparticles to ensure cellular uptake and immune system response. The Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine

3552-533: The name "Fedora" to be associated with their Linux operating system project . Cornell and UVA formally disputed the request and, as a final settlement, all parties settled on a co-existence agreement that stated that the Cornell-UVA project could use the name when clearly associated with open source software for digital object repository systems and that Red Hat could use the name when it was clearly associated with open source computer operating systems. Fedora provides

3626-622: The needs of the U.S. government. Structured information about some of the DARPA's contracts and projects is publicly available. DARPA is well known as a high-tech government agency, and as such has many appearances in popular fiction. Some realistic references to DARPA in fiction are as "ARPA" in Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X (DARPA consults on a technical threat), in episodes of television program The West Wing (the ARPA-DARPA distinction),

3700-590: The next year. Victoria Coleman became the director of DARPA in November 2020. In recent years, DARPA officials have contracted out core functions to corporations. For example, during fiscal year 2020, Chenega ran physical security on DARPA's premises, System High Corp. carried out program security, and Agile Defense ran unclassified IT services. General Dynamics runs classified IT services. Strategic Analysis Inc. provided support services regarding engineering, science, mathematics, and front office and administrative work. DARPA has six technical offices that manage

3774-481: The original amino acids are replaced with prolines , developed by researchers at the University of Texas at Austin and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ' Vaccine Research Center . Once the protein is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by the immune system, which begins generating efficacious antibodies. The vaccine contains the following ingredients: The active ingredient

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3848-420: The other receiving a placebo of 0.9% sodium chloride. As of 7   August, more than 4,500 volunteers had enrolled. In September 2020, Moderna published the detailed study plan for the clinical trial. In September 2020, CEO Stéphane Bancel said that, if the trial is successful, the vaccine might be available to the public as early as late March or early April 2021. As of October 2020, Moderna had completed

3922-461: The output in 2022, claiming as well that it would make no less than 800   million doses in 2021. The increase in production is in part attributed to improvements made by the company in manufacturing methods. The Moderna news followed preliminary results from the Pfizer - BioNTech vaccine candidate, BNT162b2 , with Moderna demonstrating similar efficacy, but requiring storage at the temperature of

3996-442: The phase   I dose escalation clinical trial of mRNA-1273, showing dose-dependent induction of neutralizing antibodies against S1/S2 as early as 15 days post-injection. Mild to moderate adverse reactions , such as fever , fatigue, headache, muscle ache , and pain at the injection site were observed in all dose groups, but were common with increased dosage. The vaccine in low doses was deemed safe and effective in order to advance

4070-672: The process—synthesis of DNA plasmids (to be used as a template for synthesis of mRNA)—has been handled by a contractor called Aldevron based in Fargo, North Dakota . For the remainder of the process, Moderna contracted with Lonza Group to manufacture the vaccine at facilities in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in the United States, and in Visp in Switzerland, and purchased the necessary lipid excipients from CordenPharma. Besides CMOs, Moderna also manufactures

4144-672: The purpose of forming and executing research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, and able to reach far beyond immediate military requirements. The two relevant acts are the Supplemental Military Construction Authorization ( Air Force ) (Public Law 85-325) and Department of Defense Directive 5105.15, in February 1958. It was placed within the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and counted approximately 150 people. Its creation

4218-497: The quantitative measurement of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and help to establish a correlation between vaccine-induced protection and levels of anti-receptor binding domain (RBD) antibodies." The partnership was announced by Roche on 9   December 2020. A review by the FDA in December 2020, of interim results of the phase   III clinical trial on mRNA-1273 showed it to be safe and effective against COVID‑19 infection resulting in

4292-646: The restrictions on the Pfizer vaccine were relaxed when the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) updated the emergency use authorization (EUA) to permit undiluted frozen vials of the vaccine to be transported and stored at between −25 and −15 °C (−13 and 5 °F) for up to two weeks before use. The Moderna vaccine should not be stored at a temperature below −50 °C (−58 °F). In November 2020, Nature reported that "While it's possible that differences in LNP formulations or mRNA secondary structures could account for

4366-711: The results of a preliminary study, the US CDC recommends that pregnant women get vaccinated with the COVID‑;19 vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated that "the safety data supported a favorable safety profile" and that the vaccine's AE ( adverse event ) profile "did not suggest any specific safety concerns". The most common adverse events were pain at the injection site, fatigue, headache, myalgia (muscle pain), and arthralgia (joint pain). The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has reported anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction) in 2.5 cases per million doses administered and has recommended

4440-646: The robot . DARPA also supported the early development of both hypertext and hypermedia . DARPA funded one of the first two hypertext systems, Douglas Engelbart 's NLS computer system, as well as The Mother of All Demos . DARPA later funded the development of the Aspen Movie Map , which is generally seen as the first hypermedia system and an important precursor of virtual reality . The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) only to projects with direct military application. The resulting " brain drain "

4514-540: The safety of the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine during pregnancy. The initial study excluded pregnant women or discontinued them from vaccination upon a positive pregnancy test. Studies in animals found no safety concerns and clinical trials are underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of COVID‑19 vaccines in pregnant women. Real-world observations through the CDC v-safe tracking program have not uncovered unusual numbers of adverse events or outcomes of interest. Based on

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4588-475: The site of injection." The troublesome higher doses were discarded in July from future studies. In September 2021, a study funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases reported a strong immune response after six months, even at low doses, suggesting that more doses could be deployed from a limited vaccine supply. Six months after low-dose vaccination, 67% of participants still had memory cytotoxic T cells , suggesting that immune memory

4662-636: The successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition , space-based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO), later known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), now titled the Missile Defense Agency (MDA). During the 1980s, the attention of

4736-686: The tasks of filling and packaging vials ( fill and finish ), Moderna entered into contracts with Catalent in the United States and Laboratorios Farmacéuticos Rovi in Spain. In April 2021, Moderna expanded its agreement with Catalent to increase manufacturing output at the latter's plant in Bloomington, Indiana . The expansion will allow Catalent to manufacture up to 400 vials per minute and fill an additional 80   million vials per year. Later that month, Moderna announced its plans to spend billions of dollars to boost production of its vaccines, potentially tripling

4810-677: The television program Numb3rs , and the Netflix film Spectral . Moderna COVID-19 vaccine The Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine , sold under the brand name Spikevax , is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by the American company Moderna , the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA). Depending on

4884-480: The thermostability differences [between Moderna and BioNtech], many experts suspect both vaccine products will ultimately prove to have similar storage requirements and shelf lives under various temperature conditions." In January 2020, Moderna announced development of an RNA vaccine , codenamed mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Moderna received US$ 955   million from the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), an office of

4958-659: The vaccine at its own production facility in Norwood, Massachusetts . Another manufacturing site for the vaccines for the market outside the U.S. (since the end of 2021) is in Geleen in the Netherlands, produced by its manufacturing partner Lonza . Earlier, Lonza did produce the vaccine for the EU, U.K. and Canada at its site in Switzerland only, but had to cut projected deliveries to the U.K. and Canada earlier in 2021 due to production issues. For

5032-679: The vaccine group, versus eleven in the placebo group. This efficacy has been described as "astonishing" and "borderline historic" for a respiratory virus vaccine, and it is similar to the efficacy of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine . Efficacy estimates were similar across age groups, sexes, racial and ethnic groups, and participants with medical comorbidities associated with high risk of severe COVID‑19. Only individuals aged 18 or older were studied. Studies are underway to gauge efficacy and safety in children aged 0–11 (KidCOVE) and 12–17 (TeenCOVE). A further study conducted by

5106-435: The vaccine's high efficacy, with significant effectiveness observed two weeks post-administration of the second dose, offering 94% protection against Covid and robust defense against severe cases. The vaccine's efficacy spans various demographics, including age, sex, and those with high-risk medical conditions. It is an mRNA vaccine composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which

5180-748: The version of the bivalent vaccine used in the United States is based on the Omicron BA.4/BA.5 variant, while the second component of the bivalent vaccine version used in other countries is based on the Omicron BA.1 variant . The vaccine's effectiveness against variants has been extensively studied, indicating varying degrees of protection. For instance, during the prevalence of the Delta variant, effectiveness against infection slightly decreased over time. The vaccine's longevity and continuous protection are under study, with ongoing research focusing on its duration of effectiveness, which remains partially undetermined as of

5254-409: Was 80%. The duration of protection provided by the vaccine is unknown as of April 2021 , and a two-year followup study is underway to determine the duration. Preliminary results from a phase III trial indicate that vaccine efficacy is durable, remaining at 93% six months after the second dose. A vaccine is generally considered effective if the estimate is ≥50% with a >30% lower limit of

5328-550: Was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U.S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $ 520 million. ARPA's first director, Roy Johnson, left a $ 160,000 management job at General Electric for an $ 18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant. Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA

5402-452: Was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPA's funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do "high-risk", "high-gain", "far out" basic research, a posture that was enthusiastically embraced by the nation's scientists and research universities. ARPA's second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961 and was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963. Ruina,

5476-552: Was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies. Concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing . All modern operating systems rely on concepts invented for the Multics system, developed by

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