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72-501: The Faust of early books – as well as the ballads, dramas, movies, and puppet-plays which grew out of them – is irrevocably damned because he prefers human knowledge over divine knowledge: "He laid the Holy Scriptures behind the door and under the bench, refused to be called doctor of theology , but preferred to be styled doctor of medicine ". Plays and comic puppet theatre loosely based on this legend were popular throughout Germany in

144-448: A broadcloth weaver takes over his business and marries his widow on his death. On achieving success, he is liberal to the poor and refuses a knighthood for his substantial services to the king. Other examples from the Pepys collection include The Countryman's Counsellor, or Everyman his own Lawyer , and Sports and Pastimes , written for schoolboys, including magic tricks, like how to "fetch

216-482: A false self more amenable to caretakers may offer a viable form of life, but at the expense of one's true emotions and affects. For the psychotic, a Faustian bargain with an omnipotent-self can offer the imaginary refuge of a psychic retreat at the price of living in unreality. Holy Scriptures Religious texts , including scripture , are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They often feature

288-466: A compilation or discussion of beliefs, ritual practices, moral commandments and laws , ethical conduct, spiritual aspirations, and admonitions for fostering a religious community. Within each religion, these sacred texts are revered as authoritative sources of guidance, wisdom, and divine revelation . They are often regarded as sacred or holy, representing the core teachings and principles that their followers strive to uphold. According to Peter Beal,

360-399: A corpus of religious texts from the "canonical" literature. At its root, this differentiation reflects the sects and conflicts that developed and branched off over time, the competitive "acceptance" of a common minimum over time and the "rejection" of interpretations, beliefs, rules or practices by one group of another related socio-religious group. The earliest reference to the term "canon" in

432-505: A definitive canon". While the term scripture is derived from the Latin scriptura , meaning "writing", most sacred scriptures of the world's major religions were originally a part of their oral tradition , and were "passed down through memorization from generation to generation until they were finally committed to writing", according to Encyclopaedia Britannica . In Islam , the Sunnah are

504-699: A degree in divinity from Heidelberg University in 1509, but the legendary Faust has also been connected with an earlier Johann Fust ( c.  1400–1466 ), Johann Gutenberg 's business partner, which suggests that Fust is one of the multiple origins to the Faust story. Scholars such as Frank Baron and Ruickbie (2009) contests many of these previous assumptions. The character in Polish folklore named Pan Twardowski (Sir Twardowski in English) presents similarities with Faust. The Polish story seems to have originated at roughly

576-417: A fictional version of the famous lawyer and orator, in front of a judge and jury of the damned, and his case is won. It was adapted in 1941 as a movie, The Devil and Daniel Webster , with Walter Huston as the devil, James Craig as Jabez and Edward Arnold as Webster. It was remade in 2007 as Shortcut to Happiness with Alec Baldwin as Jabez, Anthony Hopkins as Webster and Jennifer Love Hewitt as

648-454: A growing pyre, intending to burn them. However, a wind turns over a few cabalistic leaves, and one of the books' pages catches Faust's eye. Their words contain a prescription for how to invoke the dreadful dark forces. Faust heeds these recipes and begins enacting the mystic protocols: On a hill, alone, summoning Mephisto, certain forces begin to convene, and Faust in a state of growing trepidation hesitates, and begins to withdraw; he flees along

720-683: A halfpenny each. The probate inventory of the stock of Charles Tias, of The sign of the Three Bibles on London Bridge, in 1664 included books and printed sheets to make approximately 90,000 chapbooks (including 400 reams of paper) and 37,500 ballad sheets. Tias was not regarded as an outstanding figure in the trade. The inventory of Josiah Blare, of The Sign of the Looking Glass on London Bridge, in 1707 listed 31,000 books, plus 257 reams of printed sheets. A conservative estimate of sales in Scotland alone in

792-466: A religious community. The terms sacred text and religious text are not necessarily interchangeable in that some religious texts are believed to be sacred because of the belief in some theistic religions such as the Abrahamic religions that the text is divinely or supernaturally revealed or divinely inspired , or in non-theistic religions such as some Indian religions they are considered to be

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864-467: A religious text, has origins as early as 2150 BCE, and stands as one of the earliest literary works that includes various mythological figures and themes of interaction with the divine. The Rigveda , a scripture of Hinduism , is dated 1500 BCE. It is one of the oldest known complete religious texts that has survived into the modern age. There are many possible dates given to the first writings which can be connected to Talmudic and Biblical traditions,

936-546: A rival pope. Another important version of the legend is the play Faust , written by the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe . The First Part , which is the one more closely connected to the earlier legend, was published in 1808, the Second appeared posthumously in 1832. Goethe's Faust complicates the simple Christian moral of the original legend. A hybrid between a play and an extended poem, Goethe's two-part " closet drama "

1008-445: A scholarly interest in the form. Modern small literary presses, such as Louffa Press , Black Lawrence Press and Ugly Duckling Presse , continue to issue several small editions of chapbooks a year, updated in technique and materials, often to high fabrication standards, such as letterpress . Chapbooks were cheap, anonymous publications that were the usual reading material for lower-class people who could not afford books. Members of

1080-455: A shilling out of a handkerchief", write invisibly, make roses out of paper, snare wild duck, and make a maid-servant fart uncontrollably. The provinces and Scotland had their own local heroes. Robert Burns commented that one of the first two books he read in private was "the history of Sir William Wallace ... poured a Scottish prejudice in my veins which will boil along there till the flood-gates of life shut in eternal rest". Chapbooks had

1152-410: A single sheet folded into 8, 12, 16, or 24 pages, sometimes bound with a saddle stitch . Printers provided chapbooks on credit to chapmen, who sold them both from door to door and at markets and fairs, then paying for the stock they sold. The tradition of chapbooks emerged during the 16th century as printed books were becoming affordable, with the medium ultimately reaching its height of popularity during

1224-549: A text "having [religious] authority and often collected into an accepted canon". In modern times, this equation of the written word with religious texts is particular to the English language , and is not retained in most other languages, which usually add an adjective like " sacred " to denote religious texts. Some religious texts are categorized as canonical, some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. The term "canon"

1296-468: A wide and continuing influence. Eighty percent of English folk songs collected by early-20th-century collectors have been linked to printed broadsides, including over 90 of which could only be derived from those printed before 1700. It has been suggested the majority of surviving ballads can be traced to 1550–1600 by internal evidence. One of the most popular and influential chapbooks was Richard Johnson's Seven Champions of Christendom (1596), believed to be

1368-412: A winding, twisting pathway, returning to his study chambers. At pauses along this retreat, though, he meets a reappearing figure. Each time, it doffs its hat in a greeting that is Mephisto confronting him. Mephisto overcomes Faust's reluctance to sign a long binding pact with the invitation that Faust may try on these powers, just for one day, and without obligation to longer terms. Upon the end of that day,

1440-438: Is a retelling of the tale of Faust based on the short story " The Devil and Tom Walker ", written by Washington Irving . Benet's version of the story centers on a New Hampshire farmer by the name of Jabez Stone who, plagued with unending bad luck, is approached by the devil under the name of Mr. Scratch who offers him seven years of prosperity in exchange for his soul. Jabez Stone is eventually defended by Daniel Webster ,

1512-420: Is also a term currently used to denote publications of up to about 40 pages, usually poetry bound with some form of saddle stitch , though many are perfect bound , folded, or wrapped. These publications range from low-cost productions to finely produced, hand-made editions that may sell to collectors for hundreds of dollars. More recently, the popularity of fiction and non-fiction chapbooks has also increased. In

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1584-550: Is derived from the Greek word " κανών ", "a cane used as a measuring instrument". It connotes the sense of "measure, standard, norm, rule". In the modern usage, a religious canon refers to a "catalogue of sacred scriptures" that is broadly accepted to "contain and agree with the rule or canon of a particular faith", states Juan Widow. The related terms such as "non-canonical", "extracanonical", "deuterocanonical" and others presume and are derived from "canon". These derived terms differentiate

1656-463: Is derived from the ratification, enforcement , and its use across generations. Some religious texts are accepted or categorized as canonical , some non-canonical, and others extracanonical, semi-canonical, deutero-canonical, pre-canonical or post-canonical. "Scripture" (or "scriptures") is a subset of religious texts considered to be "especially authoritative", revered and "holy writ", "sacred, canonical", or of "supreme authority, special status" to

1728-416: Is epic in scope. It gathers together references from Christian, medieval, Roman , eastern, and Hellenic poetry, philosophy, and literature. The composition and refinement of Goethe's own version of the legend occupied him, off and on, for over sixty years. The final version, published after his death, is recognized as a great work of German literature. The story concerns the fate of Faust in his quest for

1800-474: Is happy and dies. Mephistopheles tries to seize Faust's soul when he dies after this moment of happiness, but is frustrated and enraged when angels intervene due to God's grace. Though this grace is 'gratuitous' and does not condone Faust's frequent errors with Mephistopheles, the angels state that this grace can only occur because of Faust's unending striving and due to the intercession of the forgiving Gretchen. The final scene has Faust's soul carried to Heaven in

1872-414: Is not the one who suggests the wager. In the first part, Mephistopheles leads Faust through experiences that culminate in a lustful relationship with Gretchen, an innocent young woman. Gretchen and her family are destroyed by Mephistopheles' deceptions and Faust's desires. Part one of the story ends in tragedy for Faust, as Gretchen is saved but Faust is left to grieve in shame. The second part begins with

1944-515: Is unsatisfied with his life as a scholar and becomes depressed. After an attempt to take his own life, he calls on the Devil for further knowledge and magic powers with which to indulge all the pleasure and knowledge of the world. In response, the Devil's representative, Mephistopheles , appears. He makes a bargain with Faust: Mephistopheles will serve Faust with his magic powers for a set number of years, but at

2016-579: The Quran (the book of Islam ) are the divine revelation ( wahy ) delivered through Muhammad that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and belief/theology . However sects of Islam differ on which hadiths (if any) should be accepted as canonical (see Criticism of hadith ). Chapbook A chapbook is a type of small printed booklet that was a popular medium for street literature throughout early modern Europe . Chapbooks were usually produced cheaply, illustrated with crude woodcuts and printed on

2088-511: The 16th and the early 20th centuries. They preceded chapbooks but had similar content, marketing, and distribution systems. There are records from Cambridgeshire as early as in 1553 of a man offering a scurrilous ballad "maistres mass" at an alehouse , and a pedlar selling "lytle books" to people, including a patcher of old clothes in 1578. These sales are probably characteristic of the market for chapbooks. The form factor originated in Britain, but

2160-640: The 16th century there were still family ties between the lords of Staufen and the counts of Zimmern in nearby Donaueschingen. In Christopher Marlowe 's original telling of the tale, Wittenburg—where Faust studied—was also written as Wertenberge. This has led to a measure of speculation as to precisely where his story is set. Some scholars suggest the Duchy of Württemberg ; others suggest an allusion to Marlowe's own Cambridge (Gill, 2008, p. 5) The early Faust chapbook , while in circulation in northern Germany, found its way to England, where in 1592 an English translation

2232-488: The 16th century, often reducing Faust and Mephistopheles to figures of vulgar fun. The story was popularised in England by Christopher Marlowe , who gave it a classic treatment in his play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus ( c.  1592 ). In Goethe's reworking of the story over two hundred years later, Faust becomes a dissatisfied intellectual who yearns for "more than earthly meat and drink" in his life. Faust

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2304-485: The 17th and 18th centuries. Various ephemera and popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such as almanacs , children's literature , folklore , ballads , nursery rhymes , pamphlets , poetry , and political and religious tracts . The term chapbook remains in use by publishers to refer to short, inexpensive booklets. Chapbook is first attested in English in 1824, and seemingly derives from chapman ,

2376-564: The Devil appears on the north tympanum of the Cathedrale de Notre Dame de Paris . The origin of Faust's name and persona remains unclear. In the Historia Brittonum , Faustus is the offspring of an incestuous marriage between king Vortigern and Vortigern's own daughter. The character is ostensibly based on Johann Georg Faust ( c.  1480–1540 ), a magician and alchemist probably from Knittlingen , Württemberg , who obtained

2448-402: The Devil. F.W. Murnau , director of the classic Nosferatu , directed a silent version of Faust that premiered in 1926. Murnau's film featured special effects that were remarkable for the era. In one scene, Mephisto towers over a town, dark wings spread wide, as a fog rolls in bringing the plague. In another, an extended montage sequence shows Faust, mounted behind Mephisto, riding through

2520-609: The Faust legend to a 20th century context, documenting the life of fictional composer Adrian Leverkühn, as analog and embodiment of the early 20th century history of Germany and of Europe. The talented Leverkühn, after contracting venereal disease from a brothel visit, forms a pact with a Mephistophelean character to grant him 24 years of brilliance and success as a composer. He produces works of increasing beauty to universal acclaim, even while physical illness begins to corrupt his body. In 1930, when presenting his final masterwork ( The Lamentation of Dr. Faust ), he confesses

2592-522: The French play Les marchands d'âmes ). Staufen , a town in the extreme southwest of Germany, claims to be where Faust died ( c.  1540 ); depictions appear on buildings, etc. The only historical source for this tradition is a passage in the Chronik der Grafen von Zimmern , which was written c.  1565 , 25 years after Faust's presumed death. These chronicles are generally considered reliable, and in

2664-970: The Pepys collection, Charles I , and Oliver Cromwell do not appear as historical figures, The Wars of the Roses and the English Civil War do not appear at all, Elizabeth I appears only once, and Henry VIII and Henry II appear in disguise, standing up for the right with cobblers and millers and then inviting them to court and rewarding them. There was a pattern of high born heroes overcoming reduced circumstances by valour, such as Saint George , Guy of Warwick , Robin Hood , and heroes of low birth who achieve status through force of arms, such as Clim of Clough, and William of Cloudesley. Clergy often appear as figures of fun, and foolish countrymen were also popular (e.g., The Wise Men of Gotham ). Other works were aimed at regional and rural audience (e.g., The Country Mouse and

2736-570: The Town Mouse ). From 1597 works were published that were aimed at specific trades, such as cloth merchants , weavers and shoemakers . The latter were commonly literate. Thomas Deloney, a weaver, wrote Thomas of Reading , about six clothiers from Reading , Gloucester , Worcester , Exeter , Salisbury and Southampton , traveling together and meeting at Basingstoke their fellows from Kendal , Manchester and Halifax . In his Jack of Newbury , set during Henry VIII 's reign, an apprentice to

2808-460: The UK they are more often referred to as pamphlets . The genre has been revitalized in the past 40 years by the widespread availability of first mimeograph technology, then low-cost copy centres and digital printing, and by the cultural revolutions spurred by both zines and poetry slams , the latter generating hundreds upon hundreds of self-published chapbooks that are used to fund tours. The Center for

2880-424: The basis for several major operas: for a more complete list, visit Works based on Faust Faust has inspired major musical works in other forms: Psychodynamic therapy uses the idea of a Faustian bargain to explain defence mechanisms , usually rooted in childhood, that sacrifice elements of the self in favor of some form of psychological survival. For the neurotic, abandoning one's genuine feeling self in favour of

2952-423: The beautiful and innocent Gretchen. His corruption (enabled, or embodied, through the forms of Mephisto) ultimately ruins both their lives, though there is still a chance for redemption in the end. Similarities to Goethe's Faust include the classic tale of a man who sold his soul to the Devil, the same Mephisto wagering with an angel to corrupt the soul of Faust, the plague sent by Mephisto on Faust's small town, and

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3024-461: The central tenets of their eternal Dharma . In contrast to sacred texts, many religious texts are simply narratives or discussions pertaining to the general themes, interpretations, practices, or important figures of the specific religion. In some religions (e.g. Christianity ), the canonical texts include a particular text ( Bible ) but is "an unsettled question", according to Eugene Nida . In others ( Hinduism , Buddhism ), there "has never been

3096-472: The chapbook and ballad production was London, and until the Great Fire of London in 1666 the printers were based around London Bridge . However, a feature of chapbooks is the proliferation of provincial printers, especially in Scotland and Newcastle upon Tyne . The first Scottish publication was the tale of Tom Thumb , in 1682. Chapbooks were an important medium for the dissemination of popular culture to

3168-408: The child and is sentenced to death for murder. However, Gretchen's innocence saves her in the end, and she enters Heaven . In Goethe's rendition, Faust is saved by God via his constant striving – in combination with Gretchen's pleadings with God in the form of the eternal feminine . However, in the early versions of the tale, Faust is irrevocably corrupted and believes his sins cannot be forgiven; when

3240-471: The common people, especially in rural areas. They were a medium of entertainment and information. Though the content of chapbooks has been criticized as unsophisticated narratives which were heavily loaded with repetition and emphasized adventure through mostly anecdotal structures, they are valued as a record of popular culture, preserving cultural artefacts that may not survive in any other form. Chapbooks were priced for sales to workers, although their market

3312-589: The context of "a collection of sacred Scripture" is traceable to the 4th-century CE. The early references, such as the Synod of Laodicea , mention both the terms "canonical" and "non-canonical" in the context of religious texts. One of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of ancient Sumer , a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. The Epic of Gilgamesh from Sumer , although only considered by some scholars as

3384-500: The development of literacy, and there is evidence of their use by autodidacts . In the 1660s, as many as 400,000 almanacs were printed annually, enough for one family in three in England. One 17th-century publisher of chapbooks in London stocked one book for every 15 families in the country. In the 1520s the Oxford bookseller John Dorne noted in his day-book selling up to 190 ballads a day at

3456-548: The earliest of which is found in scribal documentation of the 8th century BCE, followed by administrative documentation from temples of the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, with another common date being the 2nd century BCE. High rates of mass production and distribution of religious texts did not begin until the invention of the printing press in 1440, before which all religious texts were hand written copies, of which there were relatively limited quantities in circulation. The relative authority of religious texts develops over time and

3528-461: The end of the term, the Devil will claim Faust's soul, and Faust will be eternally enslaved. During the term of the bargain, Faust makes use of Mephistopheles in various ways. In Goethe 's drama, and many subsequent versions of the story, Mephistopheles helps Faust seduce a beautiful and innocent young woman, usually named Gretchen, whose life is ultimately destroyed when she gives birth to Faust's illegitimate son. Realizing this unholy act, she drowns

3600-720: The familiar cliffhanger with Faust unable to find a cure for the Plague, and therefore turning to Mephisto, renouncing God, the angel, and science alike. Films published after 1945. The Christopher Marlowe play has been broadcast on radio many times, including: A five-part adaptation by Martin Jenkins dramatized by Jonathan Holloway was broadcast as part of BBC Radio 4 's 15-Minute Theatre 18–22 February 2008. The cast included Julian Rhind-Tutt as Faustus, Mark Gatiss as Mephistopheles, Thom Tuck as Wagner, Jasmine Guy as Gretchen/Demon and Pippa Haywood as Martha. The Faust legend has been

3672-542: The heavens, and the camera view, effectively swooping through quickly changing panoramic backgrounds, courses past snowy mountains, high promontories and cliffs, and waterfalls. In the Murnau version of the tale, the aging bearded scholar and alchemist is disillusioned by the palpable failure of his supposed cure for a plague that has stricken his town. Faust renounces his many years of hard travail and studies in alchemy. In his despair, he hauls all his bound volumes by armloads onto

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3744-430: The libraries of provincial yeomen and gentry . John Whiting, a Quaker yeoman imprisoned at Ilchester, Somerset , in the 1680s had books sent by carrier from London, and left for him at an inn. Samuel Pepys had a collection of ballads bound into volumes, under the following classifications, into which could fit the subject matter of most chapbooks: Stories in many chapbooks have much earlier origins. Bevis of Hampton

3816-461: The pact he had made: Madness and syphilis now overcome him, and he suffers a slow and total collapse until his death in 1940. Leverkühn's spiritual, mental, and physical collapse and degradation are mapped on to the period in which Nazism rose in Germany, and Leverkühn's fate is shown as that of the soul of Germany. Stephen Vincent Benét 's short story " The Devil and Daniel Webster " published in 1937

3888-575: The presence of God by the intercession of the "Virgin, Mother, Queen, ... Goddess kind forever ... Eternal Womanhood". The woman is thus victorious over Mephistopheles, who had insisted at Faust's death that he would be consigned to "The Eternal Empty". Goethe's Faust is a genuinely classical production, but the idea is a historical idea, and hence every notable historical era will have its own Faust.   — Kierkegaard Thomas Mann 's 1947 Doktor Faustus: Das Leben des deutschen Tonsetzers Adrian Leverkühn, erzählt von einem Freunde adapts

3960-483: The same time as its German counterpart, yet it is unclear whether the two tales have a common origin or influenced each other. The historical Johann Georg Faust had studied in Kraków for a time and may have served as the inspiration for the character in the Polish legend. The first known printed source of the legend of Faust is a small chapbook bearing the title Historia von D. Johann Fausten , published in 1587. The book

4032-409: The sands of twenty-four hours having run out, after Faust's having been restored to youth and, helped by his servant Mephisto to steal a beautiful woman from her wedding feast, Faust is tempted so much that he agrees to sign a pact for eternity (which is to say when, in due course, his time runs out). Eventually Faust becomes bored with the pursuit of pleasure and returns home, where he falls in love with

4104-515: The second half of the 18th century was over 200,000 per year. Printers provided chapbooks on credit to chapmen, who sold them both from door to door and at markets and fairs, then paying for the stock they sold. This facilitated wide distribution and large sales with minimum outlay, and also provided the printers with feedback about what titles were most popular. Popular works were reprinted, pirated, edited, and produced in different editions. Publishers also issued catalogues, and chapbooks are found in

4176-412: The source for the introduction of Saint George into English folk plays . Robert Greene 's 1588 novel Dorastus and Fawnia , the basis of Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale , was still being published in cheap editions in the 1680s. Some stories were still being published in the 19th century, (e.g., Jack of Newbury , Friar Bacon , Dr Faustus and The Seven Champions of Christendom ). Chapbook

4248-401: The spirits of the earth forgiving Faust (and the rest of mankind) and progresses into allegorical poetry. Faust and his Devil pass through and manipulate the world of politics and the world of the classical gods , and meet with Helen of Troy (the personification of beauty). Finally, in anticipation of having tamed the forces of war and nature and created a place for a free people to live, Faust

4320-638: The surviving chapbooks come from the collections of Samuel Pepys between 1661 and 1688 which are now held at Magdalene College, Cambridge . The antiquary Anthony Wood also collected 65 chapbooks, including 20 from before 1660, which are now in the Bodleian Library . There are also significant Scottish collections, such as those held by the University of Glasgow and the National Library of Scotland . Modern collectors such as Peter Opie , have chiefly

4392-627: The term scripture – derived from " scriptura " (Latin) – meant "writings [manuscripts] in general" prior to the medieval era, then became "reserved to denote the texts of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible". Beyond Christianity, according to the Oxford World Encyclopedia , the term "scripture" has referred to a text accepted to contain the "sacred writings of a religion", while The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions states it refers to

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4464-552: The term ends, the Devil carries him off to Hell . The tale of Faust bears many similarities to the Theophilus legend recorded in the 13th century writer Gautier de Coincy 's Les Miracles de la Sainte Vierge . Here, a saintly figure makes a bargain with the keeper of the infernal world but is rescued from paying his debt to society through the mercy of the Blessed Virgin . A depiction of the scene in which he subordinates himself to

4536-557: The traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. The sunnah is what all the Muslims of Muhammad's time evidently saw and followed and passed on to the next generations. According to classical Islamic theories, the sunnah are documented by hadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals attributed to Muhammad ), and alongside

4608-430: The true essence of life (" was die Welt im Innersten zusammenhält "). Frustrated with learning and the limits to his knowledge, power, and enjoyment of life, he attracts the attention of the Devil (represented by Mephistopheles), who makes a bet with Faust that he will be able to satisfy him. Faust is reluctant, believing this will never happen. This is a significant difference between Goethe's "Faust" and Marlowe's; Faust

4680-561: The upper classes occasionally owned chapbooks, and sometimes bound them in leather. Printers typically tailored their texts for the popular market. Chapbooks were usually between four and twenty-four pages long, and produced on rough paper with crude, frequently recycled, woodcut illustrations. They sold in the millions. After 1696, English chapbook peddlers had to be licensed, and 2,500 of them were then authorized, 500 in London alone. In France, there were 3,500 licensed colporteurs by 1848, and they sold 40 million books annually. The centre of

4752-413: The word for the itinerant salesmen who would sell such books. The first element of chapman comes in turn from Old English cēap 'barter', 'business', 'dealing', from which the modern adjective cheap was ultimately derived. Chapbooks correspond to Spanish Cordel literature , and to French bibliothèque bleue 'blue library' literature, because they were often wrapped in cheap blue paper that

4824-547: Was also used in North America. Chapbooks gradually disappeared from the mid-19th century in the face of competition from cheap newspapers and, especially in Scotland, from tract societies that regarded them as ungodly. Chapbooks were generally aimed at buyers who did not maintain libraries, and due to their flimsy construction they rarely survive as individual items. In an era when paper was expensive, chapbooks were sometimes used for wrapping, baking, or as toilet paper . Many of

4896-569: Was an Anglo-Norman romance of the 13th century, which probably drew on earlier themes. The structure of The Seven Sages of Rome was of Eastern origin, and was used by Geoffrey Chaucer . Many jests about ignorant and greedy clergy in chapbooks were taken from The Friar and the Boy printed about 1500 by Wynkyn de Worde , and The Sackfull of News (1557). Historical stories set in a mythical and fantastical past were popular, while many significant historical figures and events appear rarely or not at all: in

4968-551: Was not limited to the working classes. Broadside ballads were sold for a halfpenny , or a few pence . Prices of chapbooks were from 2d. to 6d., when agricultural labourers' wages were 12d. per day. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males and rose to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. Many working people were readers, if not writers, and pre-industrial working patterns provided periods during which they could read. Chapbooks were used for reading to family groups or groups in alehouses. They contributed to

5040-456: Was published, The Historie of the Damnable Life, and Deserved Death of Doctor Iohn Faustus credited to a certain "P. F., Gent[leman]". Christopher Marlowe used this work as the basis for his more ambitious play, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (published c.  1604 ). Marlowe also borrowed from John Foxe 's Book of Martyrs , on the exchanges between Pope Adrian VI and

5112-491: Was re-edited and borrowed from throughout the 16th century. Other similar books of that period include: The 1725 Faust chapbook was widely circulated and also read by the young Goethe. Related tales about a pact between man and the Devil include the plays Mariken van Nieumeghen (Dutch, early 16th century, author unknown), Cenodoxus (German, early 17th century, by Jacob Bidermann ) and The Countess Cathleen (Irish legend of unknown origin believed by some to be taken from

5184-506: Was usually reserved as a wrapping for sugar. Chapbooks are called Volksbuch 'people's book' in German, and as pliegos sueltos 'loose sheets' in Spanish, with the latter name referring to their method of assembly. Lubok books are the Russian equivalent. Broadside ballads were popular songs, sold for a penny or halfpenny in the streets of towns and villages around Britain between

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