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125-705: Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte are terms used in the West to classify Chinese porcelain of the Qing dynasty by the dominant colour of its enamel palette. These wares were initially grouped under the French names of famille verte ("green family"), and famille rose (pink family) by Albert Jacquemart in 1862. The other terms famille jaune (yellow) and famille noire (black) may have been introduced later by dealers or collectors and they are generally considered subcategories of famille verte . Famille verte porcelain

250-596: A German Jesuit missionary to China, organized successful missionary work and became the trusted counselor of the Shunzhi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty . He was created a mandarin and held an important post in connection with the mathematical school, contributing to astronomical studies and the development of the Chinese calendar. Thanks to Schall, the motions of both the sun and moon began to be calculated with sinusoids in

375-551: A black ground. Genuine famille noire wares were made in the Kangxi era, although some clobbered wares had the black added to famille verte porcelain in the 19th century. They may have a copper-green lead-based enamel painted over dry black cobalt ground on the biscuit, and a transparent green glaze was then applied, giving it a near-iridescent appearance. Famille noire was once highly appreciated by western collectors, which led to high prices and many pieces were then counterfeited, with

500-647: A Chinese man visiting Britain. The king was so delighted by this visit that he had his portrait made hung in his own bedroom. Later, another Chinese Jesuit Arcadio Huang would also visit France, and was an early pioneer in the teaching of the Chinese language in France, in 1715. The Jesuits introduced to China Western science and mathematics which was undergoing its own revolution. "Jesuits were accepted in late Ming court circles as foreign literati, regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography." In 1627,

625-625: A Southern Song dynasty writer commented that it was this defect that led to its demise as favoured imperial ware. Since the Song government lost access to these northern kilns when they fled south, it has been argued that Qingbai ware ( see below ) was viewed as a replacement for Ding . Jesuits in China The history of the missions of the Jesuits in China is part of the history of relations between China and

750-587: A creamy white, all in lead-based glazes. In fact some other colours could be used, including cobalt blue. In the West, Tang sancai wares were sometimes referred to as egg-and-spinach . Sancai wares were northern wares made using white and buff-firing secondary kaolins and fire clays . At kiln sites located at Tongchuan , Neiqiu County in Hebei and Gongyi in Henan , the clays used for burial wares were similar to those used by Tang potters . The burial wares were fired at

875-636: A crucial role in disseminating accurate information about China in Europe. A part of the French Jesuit mission in China lingered on for several years after the suppression of the Society of Jesus until it was taken over by a group of Lazarists in 1785. Prior to the Jesuits, there had already been Chinese pilgrims who had made the journey westward, with two notable examples being Rabban bar Sauma and his younger companion, who became Patriarch Mar Yaballaha III , in

1000-409: A few different shades and iron red with other overglaze colours. It developed from the wucai (五彩, "five colours") style, which combines underglaze cobalt blue with a few overglaze colours. The famille verte enamels may be painted on the biscuit (unglazed pre-fired ware) with no underglaze blue, or over high-fired glaze, producing wares of different appearances. Wares with enamel painted on

1125-522: A funerary jar whose top was decorated by a sculptural composition. This type of vessel became widespread during the following Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Six Dynasties . The tomb figures that were to recur in the Tang were popular across society, but with more emphasis than later on model houses and farm animals. Green-glazed pottery , using lead-glazed earthenware in part of the later sancai formula,

1250-524: A junction that lies between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan - Qinling divide. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics; in particular the north lacks petunse or "porcelain stone", needed for porcelain on the strict definition. Ware-types can be from very widespread kiln-sites in either north or south China, but

1375-407: A lower temperature than contemporaneous whitewares. Tang dynasty tomb figures , such as the well-known representations of camels and horses, were cast in sections, in moulds with the parts luted together using clay slip . They were either painted in sancai or merely coated in white slip, often with paint added over the glaze, which has now mostly been lost. In some cases, a degree of individuality

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1500-477: A major stylistic and technical influence from the Islamic world in the form of blue and white porcelain , with underglaze painting in cobalt . This has been described as the "last great innovation in ceramic technology". Decoration by underglaze painted patterns had long been a feature of Chinese pottery, especially in the popular Cizhou ware (mostly using black over slip), but was perhaps regarded as rather vulgar by

1625-571: A metallic appearance. The white- or yellow-bodied wares that appeared towards the very end of the Dawenkou phase were further developed in the Longshan period, and many white wares either anticipate the bronze forms of the Shang era or have features such as rivets that suggest imitation of metalworking techniques, probably of contemporary copper wares, of which no examples have yet been discovered. All this heralded

1750-517: A minute description of all that concerns this kind of work might, be useful in Europe. In 1743, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor , Tang Ying , the imperial supervisor in the city produced a memoir entitled Twenty Illustrations of the Manufacture of Porcelain . The original illustrations have been lost, but the text is still accessible. Sancai means "three-colours": green, yellow and

1875-496: A people both intelligent and learned. " The Spaniard Diego de Pantoja and the Italian Sabatino de Ursis were some of these talented men who joined Ricci in his venture. The Jesuits saw China as equally sophisticated and generally treated China as equals with Europeans in both theory and practice. This Jesuit perspective influenced Leibniz in his cosmopolitan view of China as an equal civilisation with whom scientific exchanges

2000-506: A predilection for colour and painted design, and an openness to foreign forms. The Yongle Emperor (1402–24) was especially curious about other countries (as evidenced by his support of the eunuch Zheng He 's extended exploration of the Indian Ocean ), and enjoyed unusual shapes, many inspired by Islamic metalwork. During the Xuande period (1426–35), a technical refinement was introduced in

2125-621: A short, narrow neck atop a wide-shouldered vessel tapering to an often very narrow base; there are usually two ring handles attached to the middle of the vessel, and the ornament is slip-painted in purplish black and plum-red pigments. The designs frequently comprise four large roundels, linked by strongly curved lines or loops. Distinct from Central China ceramic tradition developed in the modern eastern coastal provinces of Shandong , Jiangsu , and Zhejiang , with principal cultures like Dawenkou , Longshan , Majiabang , Songze , and Hemudu . The most significant technological aspect of ceramics in

2250-1042: A sound grounding in the language and culture of the country. He founded St. Paul Jesuit College (Macau) and requested the Order's superiors in Goa to send a suitably talented person to Macau to start the study of Chinese. Accordingly, in 1579 the Italian Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607) was sent to Macau, and in 1582 he was joined at his task by another Italian, Matteo Ricci (1552–1610). Early efforts were aided by donations made by elites, and especially wealthy widows from Europe as well Asia. Women such as Isabel Reigota in Macau, Mercia Roiz in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Candida Xu in China, all donated significant amounts towards establishing missions in China as well as to other Asian states from China. Both Ricci and Ruggieri were determined to adapt to

2375-635: A terser and clearer edition of his Japanese grammar from Macao in 1620. The French Jesuit Joseph-Marie Amiot wrote a Manchu dictionary Dictionnaire tatare-mantchou-français (Paris, 1789), a work of great value, the language having been previously quite unknown in Europe . He also wrote a 15-volume Memoirs regarding the history, sciences, and art of the Chinese , published in Paris in 1776–1791 ( Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences et les arts des Chinois , 15 volumes, Paris, 1776–1791). His Vie de Confucius ,

2500-530: A total of 920 Jesuits participated in the China mission, of whom 314 were Portuguese, and 130 were French. In 1844 China may have had 240,000 Roman Catholics, but this number grew rapidly, and in 1901 the figure reached 720,490. Many Jesuit priests, both Western-born and Chinese, are buried in the cemetery located in what is now the School of the Beijing Municipal Committee. Contacts between Europe and

2625-417: A very fine clay with which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen through them. The vases are made of clay. This era's potteries are exemplified by their colour and vibrancy, which was largely abandoned by the succeeding ages due to the adoption of Neo-Confucianism which opposed opulent displays and striking colours, and favoured modesty and simplicity above all else. The pottery of

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2750-569: A way to enter the Chinese mainland, and died in 1552 on Shangchuan island off the coast of Guangdong , the only place in China where Europeans were allowed to stay at the time, albeit only for seasonal trade. A few years after Xavier's death, the Portuguese were allowed to establish Macau , a semi-permanent settlement on the mainland which was about 100 km closer to the Pearl River Delta than Shangchuan Island. A number of Jesuits visited

2875-452: A white ground, or on a coloured ground with yellow being the most popular. As falangcai was produced at the palace for its exclusive use, there are relatively fewer pieces of falangcai porcelain. With the successful creation of falangcai porcelain at the palace, falangcai was also then made at the imperial kilns of Jingdezhen. The term yangcai was used to refer to porcelain produced at Jingdezhen to imitate falangcai . Visually there

3000-484: A wide range of bright glaze colours. Special glazing effects were highly regarded; new ones were developed and classic Song wares imitated with great skill. But the court now accepted wares with painted scenes in both blue and white and the new bright polychrome palettes. Technical standards at Jingdezhen were remarkably high, though falling somewhat by the middle of the 19th century. Decoration, and sometimes shapes, became increasingly over-elaborate and fussy, and generally

3125-521: Is characterised by fine paste textures, thin walls, and polished surfaces; the almost complete lack of defects in excavated pots suggests a high level of quality control during production. The Majiayao and other phases of the Yangshao culture are well-represented in Western museums, with Banshan pots as the most widely recognized type of Neolithic Chinese pottery in the West. Banshan urns are characterized by

3250-607: Is from 17,000 to 18,000 years ago in the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China. By the Middle and Late Neolithic (about 5000 to 1500 BCE) most of the larger archaeological cultures in China were farmers producing a variety of attractive and often large vessels, often boldly painted, or decorated by cutting or impressing. Decoration is abstract or of stylized animals – fish are a speciality at the river settlement of Banpo . The distinctive Majiayao pottery, with orange bodies and black paint,

3375-489: Is little difference in appearance between falangcai and yangcai wares produced for imperial use, but differences may be detected in the chemical composition of the flux used. Ruancai ('soft colours') was also a term used in the Yongzheng era as the colours used are softer in contrast to the 'hard colours' (硬彩, yingcai ) previously used for famille verte or wucai . Fencai is the more modern term used by Chen Liu (陈浏) in

3500-564: Is more violet or royal blue in tone, which is different in shade from the blue used in Ming dynasty porcelain. The ability to achieve colour gradation famille verte is limited. The coloured enamels are often painted over the pure white body of the porcelain which comes over through the glaze. The colours may also be set off on black or yellow grounds (known as famille noire and famille jaune respectively), and more rarely aubergine and green. Famille verte wares were popular for several decades until

3625-534: The Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique (Sienhsien) , established in 1874. In the early 18th century, a dispute within the Catholic Church arose over whether Chinese folk religion rituals and offerings to the emperor constituted paganism or idolatry . This tension led to what became known as the "Rites Controversy," a bitter struggle that broke out after Ricci's death and lasted for over a hundred years. At first

3750-912: The Ming dynasty and the rise of the Manchu -led Qing dynasty brought some difficult years for the Jesuits in China. While some Jesuit fathers managed to impress Qing commanders with a display of western science or ecclesiastical finery and to be politely invited to join the new order (as did Johann Adam Schall von Bell in Beijing in 1644, or Martino Martini in Wenzhou ca. 1645–46), others endured imprisonment and privations, as did Lodovico Buglio and Gabriel de Magalhães in Sichuan in 1647–48 (see Catholic Church in Sichuan ), or Alvaro Semedo in Canton in 1649. Later, Johann Grueber

3875-623: The Nantang (Southern) Church and in 1655 the Dongtang (Eastern) Church. In 1703 they established the Beitang (Northern) Church near Zhongnanhai (opposite the former Beijing Library), on land given to the Jesuits by the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty in 1694, following his recovery from illness thanks to medical expertise of Fathers Jean-François Gerbillon and Joachim Bouvet . Latin spoken by

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4000-611: The Wanli Emperor (1572–1620). By this time, kaolin and pottery stone were mixed in about equal proportions. Kaolin produced wares of great strength when added to the paste; it also enhanced the whiteness of the body—a trait that became a much sought after property, especially when form blue-and-white wares grew in popularity. Pottery stone could be fired at a lower temperature (1,250 °C; 2,280 °F) than paste mixed with kaolin, which required 1,350 °C (2,460 °F). These sorts of variations were important to keep in mind because

4125-500: The Warring States period new prominence was achieved by pottery with painting. It was made by firing plain greenware and then painting on the fired ware, with no further firing. Because of this, the colorings were prone to fading or peeling off, making such wares pure burial objects, not suitable for daily use. Similar to the burial pottery was practice of offering wooden and clay models of people as burial gifts, also established under

4250-424: The dragon kiln of hilly southern China, usually fuelled by wood, long and thin and running up a slope, and the horseshoe-shaped mantou kiln of the north Chinese plains, smaller and more compact. Both could reliably produce the temperatures of up to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F) or more needed for porcelain. In the late Ming, the egg-shaped kiln ( zhenyao ) was developed at Jingdezhen , but mainly used there. This

4375-559: The falang workshop (珐琅作, falang meaning enamel may have originated from the word for the " Franks " or "France"), or through adaptation of enamels used in tin-glazed South German earthenware. Research has failed to show that the chemical composition of the pink colour pigment on famille rose to be the same as that of the European one. However, the term used by Tang Ying (who oversaw the production of porcelain at Jingdezhen ) and in Qing documents

4500-482: The 13th century. While few 17th-century Jesuits returned from China to Europe, it was not uncommon for those who did to be accompanied by young Chinese Christians. Alexandre de Rhodes brought Emmanuel Zheng Manuo to Rome in 1651. Emmanuel studied in Europe and later became the first Chinese Jesuit priest. Andreas Zheng (郑安德勒; Wade-Giles : Cheng An-te-lo) was sent to Rome by the Yongli court along with Michał Boym in

4625-463: The 1645 Shíxiàn calendar (時憲書, Book of the Conformity of Time). His position enabled him to procure from the emperor permission for the Jesuits to build churches and to preach throughout the country. The Shunzhi Emperor, however, died in 1661, and Schall's circumstances at once changed. He was imprisoned and condemned to death by slow slicing . After an earthquake and the dowager's objection, the sentence

4750-427: The 1720s after the reign of Kangxi when it became supplanted by famille rose which has a greater colour range. It continued to be made in small amounts in the subsequent periods, and its popularity revived in the West in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Famille jaune is a variation of famille verte , using famille verte enamels on a yellow ground. Famille noire (Chinese: 墨地素三彩, Modi susancai ) uses

4875-640: The China Mission, entrusted with the task of recruiting more Jesuit priests to come to China, ensuring continued support for the Mission from the Church's central authorities, and creating favorable publicity for the Mission and its policies by publishing both scholarly and popular literature about China and Jesuits. One time the Chongzhen Emperor was nearly converted to Christianity and broke his idols. The fall of

5000-586: The Chinese translation of Euclid 's Elements , published books in Chinese on Western hydraulics, and by predicting an eclipse which Chinese astronomers had not anticipated, opened the door to the reworking of the Chinese calendar using Western calculation techniques. This influence spread to Korea as well, with João Rodrigues providing the Korean mandarin Jeong Duwon astronomical, mathematical, and religious works in

5125-576: The Chinese. Celadons are plain or decorated in relief , which may be carved, inscribed or moulded. Sometimes taken by the imperial court, celadons had a more regular market with the scholarly and middle classes, and were also exported in enormous quantities. Important types are: Yue ware , Yaozhou ware and the wider Northern Celadons, Ru ware , Guan ware , and finally Longquan celadon . Jian Zhan blackwares, mainly comprising tea wares, were made at kilns located in Jianyang, Fujian province. They reached

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5250-633: The Confucian classics by several generations of Jesuits culminated with Fathers Philippe Couplet , Prospero Intorcetta , Christian Herdtrich , and François de Rougemont publishing Confucius Sinarum Philosophus ("Confucius, the Philosopher of the Chinese") in Paris in 1687. The book contained an annotated Latin translation of three of the Four Books and a biography of Confucius. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of

5375-544: The Du Paquier factory in 1725. Large number of famille rose porcelains were exported from China to the West, and many European factories such as Meissen , Chelsea and Chantilly copied the famille rose palette used in Chinese porcelain. Export of Chinese porcelain then declined due to competition from the European factories. Chinese porcelain Chinese ceramics show a continuous development since pre-dynastic times and

5500-664: The East already dated back hundreds of years, especially between the Papacy and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Numerous traders – most famously Marco Polo – had traveled between eastern and western Eurasia. Christianity was not new to the Mongols , as many had practiced Christianity of the Church of the East since the 7th century (see Christianity among the Mongols ). However, the overthrow of

5625-403: The Islamic world. However, their production tailed off as underglaze painting remained a minor technique for several centuries. Yue ware was the leading high-fired, lime-glazed celadon of the period, and was of very sophisticated design, patronized by the court. This was also the case with the northern porcelains of kilns in the provinces of Henan and Hebei , which for the first time met

5750-574: The Jesuit Johann Schreck produced the first book to present Western mechanical knowledge to a Chinese audience, Diagrams and explanations of the wonderful machines of the Far West . This influence worked in both directions: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out

5875-555: The Jesuits was used to mediate between the Qing and Russia. A Latin copy of the Treaty of Nerchinsk was written by Jesuits. Latin was one of the things which were taught by the Jesuits. A school was established by them for this purpose. A diplomatic delegation found a local who composed a letter in fluent Latin. The Jesuits were also very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe, such as translating Confucius 's works into European languages. Several historians have highlighted

6000-448: The Jesuits were making dangerous accommodations to Chinese sensibilities. In 1704 Rome decided against the ancient use of the words Shang Di (supreme emperor) and Tian (heaven) for God, and forbade the practice of sacrifices to Confucius and ancestors. Rome's decision was taken by the papal legate to the Kangxi Emperor , who rejected the decision and required missionaries to declare their adherence to "the rules of Matteo Ricci". In 1724,

6125-564: The Ming period is regarded as the greater; indeed in China this was the case at the time. By the 18th century the tradition had ceased to innovate in any radical way, and the vitality of painting declines. Primary source material on Qing dynasty porcelain is available from both foreign residents and domestic authors. Two letters written by Père François Xavier d'Entrecolles , a Jesuit missionary and industrial spy who lived and worked in Jingdezhen in

6250-473: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty by the Ming dynasty in 1368 resulted in a strong assimilatory pressure on China's Muslim, Jewish, and Christian communities, and non- Han influences were forced out of China. By the 16th century, there is no reliable information about any practicing Christians remaining in China. Fairly soon after the establishment of the direct European maritime contact with China (1513) and

6375-512: The Palace workshops in Beijing , experimentation was conducted to develop a range of enamel colours and techniques for applying the such enamels onto blank porcelain supplied by Jingdezhen, and the wares produced were called falangcai . Court painters were employed to make drafts to decorate such wares, which produced a new aesthetic style of decoration on porcelain. Falangcai decorations may be painted on

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6500-476: The Qianlong period were on eggshell porcelain. Famille rose supplanted famille verte in popularity, and its production overtook blue and white porcelain in the mid-18th century. It remained popular throughout the 18th and 19th centuries and continued to be made in the 20th century. The quality of wares produced however declined after the Qianlong period. Jingdezhen produced many famille rose pieces, and some of

6625-477: The Shang period was proto-porcelain, which has three distinct features. First, it required a higher firing temperature, 1,100 to 1,200 °C or higher; second, it has glaze on its surface, and third, its material contained kaolinite. The earliest glazes were kiln glosses, which develop naturally at high temperatures as the surface of the body fuses with kiln debris such as wood ash, which acts as a flux. This could gave potters

6750-515: The Shang period, proto-porcelain was further developed in the Zhou period, together with imprinted hard pottery. Hard pottery and proto-porcelain, fired in similar temperatures and found in the same sites, use basically the same decoration techniques. Potters realized very quickly that an even finer surface on proto-porcelain could be produced if it was coated with a mixture of clay and lime. Gradually they also learn how to use different color effects by varying

6875-576: The Society of Jesus. Xavier never reached the mainland, dying after only a year on the Chinese island of Shangchuan . Three decades later, in 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work in China, led by several figures including the Italian Matteo Ricci , introducing Western science, mathematics, astronomy, and visual arts to the Chinese imperial court, and carrying on significant inter-cultural and philosophical dialogue with Chinese scholars, particularly with representatives of Confucianism . At

7000-411: The Song dynasty has retained enormous prestige in Chinese tradition, especially that of what later became known as the " Five Great Kilns ". The artistic emphasis of Song pottery was on subtle glaze effects and graceful shapes; other decoration, where there was any, was mostly in shallow relief . Initially this was carved with a knife, but later moulds were used, with a loss of artistic quality. Painting

7125-492: The West by Jesuits. Polish Michal Boym authored the first published Chinese dictionaries for European languages, both of which were published posthumously: the first, a Chinese–Latin dictionary, was published in 1667, and the second, a Chinese–French dictionary, was published in 1670. The Portuguese Jesuit João Rodrigues , previously the personal translator of the Japanese leaders Hideyoshi Toyotomi and Tokugawa Ieyasu , published

7250-517: The Western and Eastern definition of porcelain, being both pure white and translucent. The white Xing ware and green Yue ware were considered the finest ceramics of north and south China respectively. One of the first mentions of porcelain by a foreigner was in the Chain of Chronicles , written by the Arab traveler and merchant Suleiman in 851 AD during the Tang dynasty who recorded that: They have in China

7375-507: The Western world . The missionary efforts and other work of the Society of Jesus , or Jesuits, between the 16th and 17th century played a significant role in continuing the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and the West, and influenced Christian culture in Chinese society today. The first attempt by the Jesuits to reach China was made in 1552 by St. Francis Xavier , Navarrese priest and missionary and founding member of

7500-749: The Zhou dynasty. The life-size Terracotta Army of the first emperor Qin Shi Huang is the most spectacular example of this funerary ceramics, but normally figures were small. From the Qin period the number of figures placed in tombs grew enormously. On some Chinese definitions, the first porcelain was made in Zhejiang province during the Eastern Han dynasty . Shards recovered from archaeological Eastern Han kiln sites estimated firing temperature ranged from 1,260 to 1,300 °C (2,300 to 2,370 °F). As far back as 1000 BC,

7625-528: The animal and vegetable motifs remained based on Chinese tradition. These were initially mainly made for export, but became acceptable at court, and to buyers of fine ceramics internally. Export markets readily accepted the style, which has continued to be produced ever since, both in China and around the world. Because of this, improvements in water transportation and the re-unification under Mongol rule, pottery production started to concentrate near deposits of kaolin , such as Jingdezhen , which gradually became

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7750-465: The biscuit usually have a solid-colour ground such as yellow, black or green, while those painted over the glaze may have a white ground. Occasionally both underglaze and overglaze blue may be seen in the same object. The firing to fuse the enamels was done at a relatively low temperature. The colours found in famille verte are typically green, red, yellow, blue and aubergine (non-vivid purple). Black may also be used and occasionally gold. The blue colour

7875-523: The capital in the north, are in sancai , while others are unpainted or were painted over a slip ; the paint has now often fallen off. The sancai vessels too may have been mainly for tombs, which is where they are all found; the glaze was less toxic than in the Han, but perhaps still to be avoided for use at the dining table. In the south, the wares from the Changsha Tongguan Kiln Site in Tongguan are significant for their first regular use of underglaze painting; examples have been found in many places in

8000-441: The ceramic prototype of later bronze ding . Trilobed ewer known as gui (see illustration), which was also ancestor to a bronze vessel, date from the mid- to late Dawenkou period. The stems and high feet of the raised Dawenkou vessels are often decorated with pierced openwork, a feature also of some black pottery of Longshan culture (see illustration). Smooth surface of black pottery is occasionally incised but never painted, giving it

8125-576: The clay material fused, and first stoneware appeared in today Zhejiang/Jiangsu. At the same time, southern potters lacked skills in forming ceramic vessels of all kinds and in using various clays and they didn't use any true glaze. Northern China present a different chronology in the production of high-fired wares, probably due to establishment of strong political and economic center by the Shang dynasty. Many different types of earthenware were produced, although its clay were unsuited to firing to stoneware temperatures. A very fine white clay, with some kaolinite ,

8250-432: The clay used was what is called kaolinite in the West. In some cases stoneware was preferred for its darker colour or better working qualities. Potteries used the local clay, and when that was dark or coarse and they wanted a fine white body, they covered the clay with white slip before applying glaze. The Mongol Yuan dynasty enforced the movement of artists of all sorts around the Mongol Empire, which in ceramics brought

8375-508: The continuation of Ding ware and the arrival of the qingbai which would replace it. The Liao, Xia and Jin were founded by non-literate, often nomadic people who conquered parts of China. Pottery production continued under their rule, but their own artistic traditions merged to some extent with the Chinese, producing characteristic new styles. The fine pottery of all these regions was mainly high-fired, with some earthenware produced because of its lower cost and more colourful glazes. Some of

8500-405: The court and the literati class , and the finest ceramics were monochrome, using an understated aesthetic with perfect shapes and subtle glaze effects, often over shallow decoration carved or moulded into the surface. This was a great contrast to the bright colours and complicated designs developed under the Yuan, whose organization was mostly based on Islamic art , especially metalwork, although

8625-570: The court of the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming, and returned with the Pope's response that promised prayer, after some military assistance from Macau. There were many Christians in the court of the polygamist emperor. In 1685, the French king Louis XIV sent a mission of five Jesuit "mathematicians" to China in an attempt to break the Portuguese predominance: Jean de Fontaney (1643–1710), Joachim Bouvet (1656–1730), Jean-François Gerbillon (1654–1707), Louis Le Comte (1655–1728) and Claude de Visdelou (1656–1737). French Jesuits played

8750-440: The creation of the Society of Jesus (1540), at least some Chinese became involved with the Jesuit effort. As early as 1546, two Chinese boys enrolled in the Jesuits' St. Paul's College in Goa , the capital of Portuguese India. One of these two Christian Chinese, known as Antonio, accompanied St. Francis Xavier , a co-founder of the Society of Jesus, when he decided to start missionary work in China. However, Xavier failed to find

8875-465: The early 1630s, which he carried back to Seoul from Dengzhou and Beijing , prompting local controversy and discussion decades before the first foreign scholars were permitted to enter the country. Like the Chinese, the Koreans were most interested in practical technology with martial applications (such as Rodrigues's telescope ) and the possibility of improving the calendar , with its associated religious festivals . Johann Adam Schall (1591–1666),

9000-521: The early 18th century, described in detail manufacturing of porcelain in the city. In his first letter dated 1712, d'Entrecolles described the way in which pottery stones were crushed, refined and formed into little white bricks, known in Chinese as petuntse . He then went on to describe the refining of china clay kaolin along with the developmental stages of glazing and firing. He explained his motives: Nothing but my curiosity could ever have prompted me to such researches, but it appears to me that

9125-644: The early 20th century and it then replaced yangcai in Chinese usage. The famille rose enamels allow for a greater range of colour and tone than was previously possible, enabling the depiction of more complex images, particularly during the Qianlong era, and decorations became more elaborate and crowded in the later Qianlong period. The images may be painted on coloured grounds, including yellow, blue, pink, coral red, light green, 'cafe au lait' and brown. Black ground or famille noire may also be used on famille rose ware, but they are not highly regarded. Many produced in

9250-417: The emperor, and large quantities of Chinese export porcelain were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date, initially to East Asia and the Islamic world, and then from around the 16th century to Europe. Chinese ceramics have had an enormous influence on other ceramic traditions in these areas. Increasingly over their long history, Chinese ceramics can be classified between those made for

9375-697: The finest pieces were made there. However, from the late 18th century onwards, many pieces were decorated in the port city of Canton to produce the Canton ware intended for export, using white porcelain from Jingdezhen. In contrast to the more refined 'court-taste' porcelain, export wares particularly those from the 19th century tend to be highly and brightly decorated. The decorative patterns used in these export wares may be referred to as Rose Canton, Rose Mandarin and Rose Medallion. Famille rose enamels were known to have been used in Europe before its usage became established in China, for example in Vienna porcelain made by

9500-457: The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era. Porcelain was a Chinese invention and is so identified with China that it is still called "china" in everyday English usage. Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, thus few names of individual potters were recorded. Many of the most important kiln workshops were owned by or reserved for

9625-685: The first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the late Eastern Han dynasty (100–200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), the Six Dynasties period (220–589 AD), and the Tang dynasty (618–906 AD). Kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery. The Chinese developed effective kilns capable of firing at around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) before 2000 BC. These were updraft kilns, often built below ground. Two main types of kilns were developed by about 200 AD and remained in use until modern times. These are

9750-418: The first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. Jan Mikołaj Smogulecki (1610–1656) is credited with introducing logarithms to China, while Sabatino de Ursis (1575–1620) worked with Matteo Ricci on

9875-505: The focal point of dissension was the Jesuit contention that the ceremonial rites of Confucianism and ancestor veneration were primarily social and political in nature and could be practiced by converts. Spanish Dominicans and Franciscans, however, charged that the practices were idolatrous, meaning that all acts of respect to the sage and one's ancestors were nothing less than the worship of demons. Eventually they persuaded Pope Clement XI that

10000-495: The glaze. Ding ( Wade–Giles : Ting ) ware was produced in Ding County , Hebei Province. Already in production when the Song emperors came to power in 940, Ding ware was the finest porcelain produced in northern China at the time, and was the first to enter the palace for official imperial use. Its paste is white, generally covered with an almost transparent glaze that dripped and collected in "tears", (though some Ding ware

10125-467: The idea of mixing burnt plant ash into diluted kaolinite mud, which was then applied to the surface of the greenwares. Such glaze, which contained plant ash and traces of iron, "turned out to be yellow or brown when fired in an oxidizing flame and blue or bluish green when fired in a reducing flame". This was the first type of celadon glaze in history of Chinese ceramics and therefore these kind of wares are sometimes called proto-celadon . Very rare in

10250-401: The impact that Jesuit accounts of Chinese knowledge had on European scholarly debates in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Ricci in his De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas had already started to report on the thoughts of Confucius; he (and, earlier, Michele Ruggieri ) made attempts at translating the Four Books , the standard introduction into the Confucian canon. The work on

10375-511: The imperial court to use or distribute, those made for a discriminating Chinese market, and those for popular Chinese markets or for export . Some types of wares were also made only or mainly for special uses such as burial in tombs, or for use on altars. The earliest Chinese pottery was earthenware , which continued in production for utilitarian uses throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly less used for fine wares. Stoneware , fired at higher temperatures, and naturally impervious to water,

10500-523: The intermediate category of stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is mostly grouped with (and translated as) porcelain. Terms such as " porcellaneous " or "near-porcelain" may be used for stonewares with porcelain-like characteristics. The Erya defined porcelain ( cí ) as "fine, compact pottery ( táo )". Chinese pottery can also be classified as being either northern or southern . China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by continental drift and forming

10625-549: The large southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly in temperature. Near the firebox it was hottest; near the chimney, at the opposite end of the kiln, it was cooler. The lengthy civil wars marking the transition from Ming to Qing caused a breakdown in the imperial kilns system, forcing the managers to find new markets. The Transitional porcelain of about 1620 to the 1680s saw a new style in painting, mostly in blue and white, with new subject-matter of landscapes and figures painted very freely, borrowing from other media. The later part of

10750-667: The late 1650s. Zheng and Boym stayed in Venice and Rome in 1652–55. Zheng worked with Boym on the transcription and translation of the Xi'an Stele , and returned to Asia with Boym, whom he buried when the Jesuit died near the Vietnam-China border. A few years later, another Chinese traveller who was called Matthaeus Sina in Latin (not positively identified, but possibly the person who traveled from China to Europe overland with Johann Grueber ) also worked on

10875-428: The late 16th century, Chenghua and Xuande era works – especially wine cups – had grown so much in popularity, that their prices nearly matched genuine antique wares of the Song dynasty or even older. This esteem for relatively recent ceramics excited much scorn on the part of literati scholars (such as Wen Zhenheng , Tu Long , and Gao Lian , who is cited below); these men fancied themselves arbiters of taste and found

11000-407: The painted aesthetic 'vulgar.' In addition to these decorative innovations, the late Ming dynasty underwent a dramatic shift towards a market economy , exporting porcelain around the world on an unprecedented scale. Thus aside from supplying porcelain for domestic use, the kilns at Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale porcelain exports to Europe starting with the reign of

11125-465: The peak of their popularity during the Song dynasty. The wares were made using locally won, iron-rich clays and fired in an oxidising atmosphere at temperatures in the region of 1,300 °C (2,370 °F). The glaze was made using clay similar to that used for forming the body, except fluxed with wood- ash . At high temperatures the molten glaze separate to produce a pattern called "hare's fur". When Jian wares were set tilted for firing, drips run down

11250-454: The period saw Europe joining the existing export markets. The Qing dynasty produced very varied porcelain styles, developing many of the innovations of the Ming. The most notable area of continuing innovation was in the increasing range of colours available, mostly in overglaze enamels . A very significant trade in Chinese export porcelain with the West developed. Court taste was highly eclectic, still favouring monochrome wares, which now used

11375-500: The period, particularly those who were interested in the integration of the Confucian system of morality into Christianity . Since the mid-17th century, detailed Jesuit accounts of the Eight trigrams and the Yin/Yang principles appeared in Europe, quickly drawing the attention of European philosophers such as Leibniz . Chinese linguistics, sciences, and technologies were also reported to

11500-668: The period. Yue ware was succeeded by Northern Celadon and then in the south Longquan celadon . White and black wares were also important, especially in Cizhou ware , and there were polychrome types, but the finer types of ceramics, for the court and the literati, remained monochrome, relying on glaze effects and shape. A wide variety of styles evolved in various areas, and those that were successful were imitated in other areas. Important kiln sites and stoneware styles included Ru , Jun , Southern Song Guan or official ware, Jian and Jizhou . Whitish porcelain continued to be improved, and included

11625-515: The place (as well as the main Chinese port in the region, Guangzhou ) on occasion, and in 1563 the Order permanently established its settlement in the small Portuguese colony. However, the early Macau Jesuits did not learn Chinese, and their missionary work could reach only the very small number of Chinese people in Macau who spoke Portuguese. A new regional manager ("Visitor") of the order, Alessandro Valignano , on his visit to Macau in 1578–1579 realized that Jesuits would not get far in China without

11750-583: The pre-eminent centre for producing porcelain in a variety of styles, a position it has held ever since. The scale of production greatly increased, and the scale and organization of the kilns became industrialized, with ownership by commercial syndicates, much division of labour , and other typical features of mass production . Some other types of pottery, especially Longquan celadon and Cizhou ware, continued to flourish. The Ming dynasty saw an extraordinary period of innovation in ceramic manufacture. Kilns investigated new techniques in design and shapes, showing

11875-520: The preparation of the cobalt used for underglaze blue decoration. Prior to this the cobalt had been brilliant in colour, but with a tendency to bleed in firing; by adding manganese the colour was duller, but the line crisper. Xuande porcelain is now considered among the finest of all Ming output. Enamelled decoration ( such as the one at left ) was perfected under the Chenghua Emperor (1464–87), and greatly prized by later collectors. Indeed, by

12000-473: The presence of pink colour overglaze enamel. The colour palette was introduced in China during the reign of Kangxi (1654–1722), possibly around 1720, but perfected only in the Yongzheng era when the finest pieces were made. Famille rose is named after its pink-coloured enamel, although it ranged from pale pink to deep ruby. Apart from pink, a range of other soft colour palettes were used in famille rose , hence

12125-690: The quantity of iron oxide in the glaze. Southern potters for a long time produced variety of unglaze stoneware, but in Eastern Zhou period today Jiangsu , Zhejiang and Jiangxi gradually becomes the most important centre of the production of proto-porcelain The new custom, using pottery instead of bronze burial objects, started becoming popular in the Spring and Autumn period . In tombs of Eastern Zhou archaeologists found many pottery burial objects emulating different ritual bronzes (see illustration of ceramic ding ). In

12250-473: The region was the development of the fast wheel in the Dawenkou culture shortly after c. 3000 bce. East coast produced the most technologically advanced ceramics in neolithic China and is best known for thin-walled, wheel-thrown, intricately shaped black pottery vessels that frequently had a burnished surface. The early Dawenkou vessels are made of red clay less carefully prepared than the fine Yangshao versions, but their forms are clearly articulated. They include

12375-421: The reign of Western Zhou , perhaps due to the increased production of imprinted hard pottery and proto-porcelain . Hard pottery, imprinted with geometric patterns on the surface, was finer and harder than regular pottery. Its firing temperature reached 1,100 °C, almost reaching the level required for full sintering, and some of it had a certain luster like a thin layer of glaze. Another ceramic invention of

12500-484: The religious qualities of the Chinese: Ruggieri to the common people, in whom Buddhist and Taoist elements predominated, and Ricci to the educated classes, where Confucianism prevailed. Ricci, who arrived at the age of 30 and spent the rest of his life in China, wrote to the Jesuit houses in Europe and called for priests – men who would not only be " good ", but also " men of talent, since we are dealing here with

12625-419: The result that a large proportion of those believed to be surviving examples are actually forgeries. The popularity of this type of porcelain has since declined. Famille rose , known in Chinese as fencai ( 粉彩 ) or ruancai ( 軟彩 / 软彩 ), lit. 'pale colours' or 'soft colours'), yangcai ( 洋彩 ), lit. 'foreign colours'), and falangcai ( 珐琅彩 , lit. 'enamel colours'), is a type of porcelain defined by

12750-420: The reverse of northern materials in each case. The northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain. Chinese porcelain is mainly made by a combination of the following materials: In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term porcelain lacks a universally accepted definition (see above ). This in turn has led to confusion about when

12875-473: The same Church of the East inscription. The result of their work was published by Athanasius Kircher in 1667 in the China Illustrata , and was the first significant Chinese text ever published in Europe. Better known is the European trip of Shen Fo-tsung in 1684–1685, who was presented to king Louis XIV on September 15, 1684, and also met with king James II , becoming the first recorded instance of

13000-463: The side, creating evidence of liquid glaze pooling. Jian tea wares of the Song dynasty were also greatly appreciated and copied in Japan, where they were known as tenmoku wares. Jizhou ware was stoneware, mostly used for tea drinking. It was famous for glaze effects, including a "tortoiseshell" glaze, and the use of real leaves as glaze resists; the leaf burnt away during firing, leaving its outlines in

13125-452: The so-called "porcelaneous wares" or "proto-porcelain wares" were made using at least some kaolin fired at high temperatures. The dividing line between the two and true porcelain wares is not a clear one. Archaeological finds have pushed the dates to as early as the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). The late Han years saw the early development of the peculiar art form of hunping , or "soul jar":

13250-451: The term fencai . The gradation of colours was produced by mixing coloured enamels with 'glassy white' (玻璃白, boli bai ), an opaque white enamel (lead arsenate). It is generally believed that the new colour palette in China was introduced by Jesuits in China (through the use of purple of Cassius ) to the Imperial court, initially on enamels used on metal wares such as cloisonné produced in

13375-429: The time of their peak influence, members of the Jesuit delegation were considered some of the emperor's most valued and trusted advisors, holding prestigious posts in the imperial government. Many Chinese, including former Confucian scholars, adopted Christianity and became priests and members of the Society of Jesus. According to research by David E. Mungello , from 1552 (i.e., the death of St. Francis Xavier) to 1800,

13500-496: The transition from a lithic to a metallic culture and white wares are distant ancestors of much later white porcelain Finds of vessels are mostly in burials; sometimes they hold the remains. One exceptional ritual site, Niuheliang in the far north, produced numerous human figurines, some about half life-size. Early Bronze Age was characterized by a growing skill in the firing and decoration of earthenware and improvements in technology as

13625-528: The twelfth volume of that collection, was more complete and accurate than any predecessors. Rodrigues and other Jesuits also began compiling geographical information about the Chinese Empire. In the early years of the 18th century, Jesuit cartographers travelled throughout the country, performing astronomical observations to verify or determine the latitude and longitude relative to Beijing of various locations, then drew maps based on their findings. Their work

13750-410: The two can nearly always be distinguished, and influences across this divide may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, with fundamental effects. The kiln types were also different, and in the north the fuel was usually coal, as opposed to wood in the south, which often affects the wares. Southern materials have high silica , low alumina and high potassium oxide ,

13875-409: The widespread use of cast bronze encouraged developments in the handling of clays and in kiln control. In addition, the use of the potter's wheel became common during the Shang and early Zhou period . All of this led to the development in the 13th century BCE, in the form of stoneware , of the first high-fired (cí 瓷) pottery. It was "an entirely new type of ceramic that was not known anywhere else in

14000-415: The world". Furnace-like kilns needed for stoneware could not suitably be placed in residential areas, which led to the beginning of the practice of setting up larger pottery-working areas close to the natural resources of clay, fuel, and water. The technology for producing high-fired pottery did not develop uniformly over China. The potters of the south could fire ceramics up to 1200 °C, at which point

14125-427: Was yangcai ("foreign colours"), indicating its foreign origin or influence. Rudimentary famille rose have been found in Chinese porcelain from the 1720s, although the technique was not fully developed until around 1730 during the Yongzheng period. The pink of the early pieces of the 1720s were darker in colours made with ruby-coloured glass, but after 1725 softer shades were achieved by mixing with white enamels. At

14250-410: Was desirable. Just as Ricci spent his life in China, others of his followers did the same. This level of commitment was necessitated by logistical reasons: Travel from Europe to China took many months, sometimes years; and learning the country's language and culture was even more time-consuming. When a Jesuit from China did travel back to Europe, he typically did it as a representative ("procurator") of

14375-622: Was developed very early and continued to be used for fine pottery in many areas at most periods; the tea bowls in Jian ware and Jizhou ware made during the Song dynasty are examples. Porcelain , on a Western definition, is "a collective term comprising all ceramic ware that is white and translucent, no matter what ingredients are used to make it or to what use it is put". The Chinese tradition recognizes two primary categories of ceramics: high-fired ( cí 瓷 ) and low-fired ( táo 陶 ), so doing without

14500-484: Was glazed a monochrome black or brown, white was the much more common type). Overall, the Ding aesthetic relied more on its elegant shape than ostentatious decoration; designs were understated, either incised or stamped into the clay prior to glazing. Due to the way the dishes were stacked in the kiln, the edged remained unglazed, and had to be rimmed in metal such as gold or silver when used as tableware. Some hundred years later,

14625-431: Was imparted to the assembled figurines by hand-carving. The major group of celadon wares is named for its glaze, which uses iron oxide to give a broad spectrum of colours centred on a jade or olive green, but covering browns, cream and light blues. This is a similar range to that of jade , always the most prestigious material in Chinese art, and the broad resemblance accounts for much of the attractiveness of celadon to

14750-527: Was in Beijing between 1656 and 1661. During the several years of war between the Qing and the Southern Ming dynasties, it was not uncommon for some Jesuits to find themselves on different sides of the front lines: while Adam Schall was an important counselor of the Qing Shunzhi Emperor in Beijing, Michał Boym travelled from the jungles of south-western China to Rome, carrying the plea of help from

14875-482: Was mostly used in the popular Cizhou ware . "What is clear is that in the Song Dynasty which tended to uphold the esthetics of conventional Confucianism, underglaze blue was not at all popular; Confucian esthetics emphasized simplicity, and the underglaze blue designs were judged to be too ornamental." Green ware or celadons were popular, both in China and in export markets, which became increasingly important during

15000-494: Was not carried out, but he died after his release owing to the privations he had endured. A collection of his manuscripts remains and was deposited in the Vatican Library . After he and Ferdinand Verbiest won the tests against Chinese and Islamic calendar scholars, the court adapted the western calendar only. The Jesuits also endeavoured to build churches and demonstrate Western architectural styles. In 1605, they established

15125-464: Was produced mainly during the Kangxi era, while famille rose porcelain was popular in the 18th and 19th century. Much of the Chinese production was Jingdezhen porcelain , and a large proportion were made for export to the West , but some of the finest were made for the Imperial court. Famille verte (康熙五彩, Kangxi wucai , also 素三彩, Susancai ), adopted in the Kangxi period around 1680, uses green in

15250-546: Was something of a compromise between the other types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions. Important specific types of pottery, many coming from more than one period, are dealt with individually in sections lower down. Pottery dating from 20,000 years ago was found at the Xianrendong Cave site in Jiangxi province, making it among the earliest pottery yet found. Another reported find

15375-450: Was summarized in a four-volume Description géographique, historique, chronologique, politique et physique de l'empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie chinoise published by Jean-Baptiste Du Halde in Paris in 1735, and on a map compiled by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville (published 1734). To disseminate information about devotional, educational and scientific subjects, several missions in China established printing presses: for example,

15500-519: Was used for some of these, though not for wares for use, as the raw lead made the glaze poisonous. During the Sui and Tang dynasties (608 to 907 AD), a wide range of ceramics, low-fired and high-fired, were produced. These included the last significant fine earthenwares to be produced in China, mostly lead-glazed sancai (three-colour) wares. Many of the well-known lively Tang dynasty tomb figures , which were only made to be placed in elite tombs close to

15625-431: Was used to produce a white pottery. Low iron content of kaolinite means that pottery does not change color due to changes in the iron element and thus remains white. The firing temperature was usually around 1,000 °C, not high enough to realize full sintering and produce porcelain, but it was the first step in this direction. White pottery, already known in neolithic period, peaked in Shang era, but became rare during

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