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45-637: Part of the pegmatite dykes of the Pampean Pegmatite Province formed during the orogeny. These dykes are thought to be derived from S-type granitic melts . The relationship of the orogeny with the Achala and Cerro Aspero batholiths of central Argentina is not fully understood. These Devonian batholiths are possibly of post-orogenic character. The Famatinian orogen's main outcrops lie in Sierras Pampeanas in northwestern Argentina . Only

90-559: A pegmatitic gabbro ) is a coarse-grained rock containing patches of much coarser-grained rock of essentially the same composition. Individual crystals in pegmatites can be enormous in size. It is likely that the largest crystals ever found were feldspar crystals in pegmatites from Karelia with masses of thousands of tons. Quartz crystals with masses measured in thousands of pounds and micas over 10 meters (33 ft) across and 4 meters (13 ft) thick have been found. Spodumene crystals over 12 meters (40 ft) long have been found in

135-412: A composition similar to granite , so that their most common minerals are quartz , feldspar , and mica . However, other pegmatite compositions are known, including compositions similar to nepheline syenite or gabbro . The term pegmatite is thus purely a textural description. Geologists typically prefix the term with a compositional description, so that granitic pegmatite is a pegmatite with

180-450: A few pegmatites have a complex composition, with numerous unusual minerals of rare elements. These complex pegmatites are mined for lithium , beryllium , boron , fluorine , tin , tantalum , niobium , rare earth elements , uranium , and other valuable commodities. The word pegmatite derives from Homeric Greek , πήγνυμι ( pēgnymi ), which means “to bind together”, in reference to the intertwined crystals of quartz and feldspar in

225-611: A higher aluminium content (peraluminous granites). Intermediate pegmatites (NYF + LCT pegmatites) are known and may have formed by contamination of an initially NYF magma body with melted undepleted supracrustral rock. Pegmatites often contain rare elements and gemstones . Examples include aquamarine , tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, apatite, and corundum , often along with tin , rare earth, and tungsten minerals, among others. Pegmatites have been mined for both quartz and feldspar. For quartz mining, pegmatites with central quartz masses have been of particular interest. Pegmatites are

270-1076: A larger intrusion. Pegmatites in low-grade metamorphic rock tend to be dominated by quartz and carbonate minerals . Pegmatites in metamorphic rock of higher grade are dominted by alkali feldspar . Gabbroic pegmatites typically occur as lenses within bodies of gabbro or diabase . Nepheline syenite pegmatites are common in alkaline igneous complexes. Volcanic rocks : Subvolcanic rocks : Plutonic rocks : Picrite basalt Peridotite Basalt Diabase (Dolerite) Gabbro Andesite Microdiorite Diorite Dacite Microgranodiorite Granodiorite Rhyolite Microgranite Granite Microcontinent Continental crustal fragments , partly synonymous with microcontinents , are pieces of continents that have broken off from main continental masses to form distinct islands that are often several hundred kilometers from their place of origin. Continental fragments and microcontinent crustal compositions are very similar to those of regular continental crust . The rifting process that caused

315-449: A rate ranging from 1 m to 10 m per day. Pegmatites are the last part of a magma body to crystallize. This final fluid fraction is enriched in volatile and trace elements. The residual magma undergoes phase separation into a melt phase and a hydrous fluid phase saturated with silica , alkalis , and other elements. Such phase separation requires formation from a wet magma, rich enough in water to saturate before more than two-thirds of

360-1042: A simple composition, often being composed entirely of minerals common in granite, such as feldspar, mica, and quartz. The feldspar and quartz often show graphic texture . Rarely, pegmatites are extremely enriched in incompatible elements , such as lithium , caesium , beryllium , tin , niobium , zirconium , uranium , thorium , boron, phosphorus, and fluorine. These complex pegmatites contain unusual minerals of these elements, such as beryl, spodumene, lepidolite, amblygonite, topaz, apatite, fluorite, tourmaline, triphylite , columbite , monazite , and molybdenite . Some of these can be important ore minerals. Some gemstones , such as emerald , are found almost exclusively in pegmatites. Nepheline syenite pegmatites typically contain zirconium, titanium , and rare earth element minerals. Gabbroic pegmatites typically consist of exceptionally coarse interlocking pyroxene and plagioclase . Pegmatites are enriched in volatile and incompatible elements , consistent with their likely origin as

405-487: A third model claims Cuyania is para-autochthonous and arrived at its current place by strike-slip fault movements starting not from Laurentia but from another region of Gondwana. The fact that Precordillera terrane has many trilobite genera in common with Laurentia but many species are endemic have led to some differing interpretations on what paleogeographic and tectonic history conditions are plausible explanations for this biogeography. Pegmatite A pegmatite

450-518: Is Wise's (2022) pegmatite classification, which focuses mostly on the source of the magma from which the pegmatite crystalizes. Pegmatites form under conditions in which the rate of new crystal nucleation is much slower than the rate of crystal growth . Large crystals are favored. In normal igneous rocks, coarse texture is a result of slow cooling deep underground. It is not clear if pegmatite forms by slow or rapid cooling. In some studies, crystals in pegmatitic conditions have been recorded to grow at

495-850: Is a chilled margin whose composition is representative of the original melt. Pegmatites derived from batholiths can be divided into a family of NYF pegmatites, characterized by progressive enrichment in niobium , yttrium , and fluorine as well as enrichment in beryllium, rare earth elements, scandium , titanium, zirconium, thorium, and uranium; and a family of LCT pegmatites, characterized by progressive accumulation of lithium, caesium , and tantalum, as well as enrichment in rubidium , beryllium, tin, barium, phosphorus, and fluorine. The NYF pegmatites likely fractionated from A- to I-type granites that were relatively low in aluminium (subaluminous to metaluminous granites). These granites originated from depleted crust or mantle rock. LCT pegmatites most likely formed from S-type granites or possibly I-type granites, with

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540-655: Is an igneous rock showing a very coarse texture , with large interlocking crystals usually greater in size than 1 cm (0.4 in) and sometimes greater than 1 meter (3 ft). Most pegmatites are composed of quartz , feldspar , and mica , having a similar silicic composition to granite . However, rarer intermediate composition and mafic pegmatites are known. Many of the world's largest crystals are found within pegmatites. These include crystals of microcline , quartz , mica , spodumene , beryl , and tourmaline . Some individual crystals are over 10 m (33 ft) long. Most pegmatites are thought to form from

585-575: Is because trilobites are unable to cross deep ocean basins . According to this view the Cuyania terrane would be an allochthonous block of Laurentian origin that was left in Gondwana after the continents went apart. But such views are not unchallenged since Cuyania is alternatively suggested to have drifted across Iapetus Ocean as a microcontinent starting in Laurentia and accreting then to Gondwana. Further

630-427: Is broad agreement on the basic mechanisms by which they form, the details of pegmatite formation remain enigmatic. Pegmatites have characteristics inconsistent with other igneous intrusions. They are not porphyritic , and show no chilled margin . On the contrary, the largest crystals are often found on the margins of the pegmatite body. While aplites are sometimes found on the margins, they are as likely to occur within

675-521: Is considered a microcontinent, though not a continental fragment. Other hotspot islands such as the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland are considered neither microcontinents nor continental fragments. Not all islands can be considered microcontinents: Borneo , the British Isles , Newfoundland , and Sri Lanka , for example, are each within the continental shelf of an adjacent continent, separated from

720-467: Is followed by deposition of albite , lepidolite , gem tourmaline , beryl, spodumene, amblygonite , topaz , apatite , and fluorite , which may partially replace some of the minerals in the earlier zone. The center of the pegmatite may have cavities lined with spectacular gemstone crystals. Some pegmatites have more complex zoning. Five distinct zones are recognized in the Harding Pegmatite in

765-489: Is found. Pegmatites are found as irregular dikes , sills , or veins , and are most common at the margins of batholiths (great masses of intrusive igneous rock). Most are closely related spatially and genetically to large intrusions. They may take the form of veins or dikes in the intrusion itself, but more commonly, they extend into the surrounding country rock, especially above the intrusion. Some pegmatites surrounded by metamorphic rock have no obvious connection to

810-668: Is now the east of the Famatinian magmatic arc a Precambrian sedimentary basin developed into a back-arc basin during the Ordovician . This basin went from Peru, through Bolivia to northwestern Argentina. The basin collected sediments from the Famatinian orogen and arc and while it did not contain oceanic crust it was a marine basin. Plutonic rocks cropping out in Cordón de Lila and Sierra de Almeida south of Salar de Atacama in Chile formed in

855-460: Is on the order of magnitude of one to a few hundred meters. Compared to typical igneous rocks they are rather inhomogeneous and may show zones with different mineral assemblages. Crystal size and mineral assemblages are usually oriented parallel to the wall rock or even concentric for pegmatite lenses. Modern pegmatite classification schemes are strongly influenced by the depth-zone classification of granitic rocks published by Buddington (1959), and

900-425: Is very similar to that of typical continental crust. Strike-slip fault zones cause the fragmentation of microcontinents. The zones link the extensional zones where continental pieces are already isolated through the remaining continental bridges. Additionally, they facilitate quick crustal thinning across narrow zones and near-vertical strike-slip-dominated faults . They develop fault-block patterns that slice

945-512: The Black Hills of South Dakota , and beryl crystals 8.2 meters (27 ft) long and 1.8 meters (6 ft) in diameter have been found at Albany, Maine . The largest beryl crystal ever found was from Malakialina on Madagascar, weighing about 380 tons, with a length of 18 m (59 ft) and a crosscut of 3.5 m (11 ft). Pegmatite bodies are usually of minor size compared to typical intrusive rock bodies. Pegmatite body size

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990-462: The Caribbean Sea , are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear dividing line between islands and microcontinents under such a definition. The Kerguelen Plateau is a large igneous province formed by a volcanic hotspot ; however, it was associated with the breakup of Gondwana and was for a time above water, so it

1035-503: The Picuris Mountains of northern New Mexico , US. These are: Large crystals nucleate on the margins of pegmatites, becoming larger as they grow inward. These include very large conical alkali feldspar crystals. Aplites are commonly present. These may cut across the pegmatite, but also form zones or irregular patches around coarser material. The aplites are often layered, showing evidence of deformation. Xenoliths may be found in

1080-494: The closure of the Iapetus Ocean . Supporting this hypothesis is the suggestion that the orogens have "truncated ends" that can be matched and that both share the commonality of having carbonate platform sediments at what is today their western side. Further, in the mentioned sediments both orogens host similar Olenellid trilobite faunas , something that is not expected to be unless both orogens had some sort of contact. This

1125-459: The texture known as graphic granite . The term was first used by René Just Haüy in 1822 as a synonym for graphic granite . Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger first used the term in its present meaning in 1845. Pegmatites are exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rocks composed of interlocking crystals , with individual crystals usually over 1 centimeter (0.4 in) in size and sometimes exceeding 1 meter (3 ft). Most pegmatites have

1170-463: The Cambrian and Ordovician in association with the orogeny. The compositions of the plutonic rocks are granodiorite and monzogranite that are either metaluminous or peraluminous . These rocks are remnants of the magmatism along the western rim of the Famatinian orogeny. Famatinian arc magmatism was caused by the subduction of Iapetus Ocean lithosphere beneath Gondwana. As subduction went on,

1215-490: The Ginsburg & Rodionov (1960) and Ginsburg et al. (1979) classification which categorized pegmatites according to their depth of emplacement and relationship to metamorphism and granitic plutons. Cerny’s (1991) revision of that classification scheme is widely used, Cerny’s (1991) pegmatite classification, which is a combination of emplacement depth, metamorphic grade and minor element content, has provided significant insight into

1260-676: The Kibara Belt of Rwanda and Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Kenticha mine of Ethiopia the Alto Ligonha Province of Mozambique , and the Mibra (Volta) mine of Minas Gerais , Brazil. Notable pegmatite occurrences are found worldwide within the major cratons , and within greenschist -facies metamorphic belts. However, pegmatite localities are only well recorded when economic mineralisation

1305-455: The body of the pegmatite, but their original mineral content is replaced by quartz and alkali feldspar, so that they are difficult to distinguish from the surrounding pegmatite. Pegmatite also commonly replaces part of the surrounding country rock. Because pegmatites likely crystallize from a fluid-dominated phase, rather than a melt phase, they straddle the boundary between hydrothermal mineral deposits and igneous intrusions . Although there

1350-488: The body of the pegmatite. The crystals are never aligned in a way that would indicate flow, but are perpendicular to the walls. This implies formation in a static environment. Some pegmatities take the form of isolated pods, with no obvious feeder conduit. As a result, metamorphic or metasomatic origins have sometimes been suggested for pegmatites. A metamorphic pegmatite would be formed by removal of volatiles from metamorphic rocks, particularly felsic gneiss , to liberate

1395-426: The classification is the petrogenetic component of the classification, which shows the association of LCT pegmatites with mainly orogenic plutons, and NYF pegmatites with mainly anorogenic plutons. Lately, there have been a few attempts to create a new classification for pegmatites less dependent on mineralogy and more reflective of their geological setting. On this issue, one of the most notable efforts on this matter

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1440-481: The composition of granite while nepheline syenite pegmatite is a pegmatite with the composition of nepheline syenite. However, the British Geological Survey (BGS) discourages this usage, preferring terms like biotite-quartz-feldspar pegmatite for a pegmatite with a typical granitic composition, dominated by feldspar with lesser quartz and biotite. Under BGS terminology, a pegmatitic rock (for example,

1485-560: The continental fragments to form most likely impacts their layers and overall thickness along with the addition of mafic intrusions to the crust. Studies have determined that the average crustal thickness of continental fragments is approximately 24.8 ± 5.7 kilometres (15.4 ± 3.5 mi). The sedimentary layer of continental fragments can be up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) thick and can overlay two to three crustal layers. Continental fragments have an average crustal density of 2.81 g/cm (0.102 lb/cu in) which

1530-402: The final melt fraction of a crystallizing body of magma. However, it is difficult to get a representative composition of a pegmatite, due to the large size of the constituent mineral crystals. Hence, pegmatite is often characterised by sampling the individual minerals that compose the pegmatite, and comparisons are made according to mineral chemistry. A common error is to assume that the wall zone

1575-556: The hydrous phase is completely depolymerized, existing almost entirely as orthosilicate , with all oxygen bridges between silicon ions broken. The low viscosity promotes rapid diffusion through the fluid, allowing growth of large crystals. When this hydrous fluid is injected into the surrounding country rock , minerals crystallize from the outside in to form a zoned pegmatite, with different minerals predominating in concentric zones. A typical sequence of deposition begins with microcline and quartz, with minor schorl and garnet . This

1620-418: The last fluid fraction of a large crystallizing magma body. This residual fluid is highly enriched in volatiles and trace elements, and its very low viscosity allows components to migrate rapidly to join an existing crystal rather than coming together to form new crystals. This allows a few very large crystals to form. While most pegmatites have a simple composition of minerals common in ordinary igneous rock,

1665-456: The magma is crystallized. Otherwise, the separation of the fluid phase is difficult to explain. Granite requires a water content of 4 wt% at a pressure of 0.5  GPa (72,500  psi ), but only 1.5 wt% at 0.1 GPa (14,500 psi) for phase separation to take place. The volatiles (primarily water, borates , fluorides , chlorides , and phosphates ) are concentrated in the hydrous phase, greatly lowering its viscosity. The silica in

1710-462: The mainland by inland seas flooding its margins. Several islands in the eastern Indonesian Archipelago are considered continental fragments, although this designation is controversial. The archipelago is home to numerous microcontinents with complex geology and tectonics. This makes it complicated to classify landmasses and determine causation for the formation of the landmass. These include southern Bacan , Banggai - Sulu Islands ( Sulawesi ),

1755-653: The origin of pegmatitic melts and their relative degrees of fractionation. Granitic pegmatites are commonly ranked into three hierarchies (class – family – type – subtype) depending upon their mineralogical-geochemical characteristics and depth of emplacement according to Cerny (1991). Classes are Abyssal, Muscovite, Rare-Element and Miarolitic. The Rare-Element Class is subdivided based on composition into LCT and NYF families: LCT for Lithium, Cesium, and Tantalum enrichment and NYF for Niobium, Yttrium, and Fluorine enrichment. Most authors classify pegmatites according to LCT- and NYF-types and subtypes. Another important contribution of

1800-409: The orogeny are scarce since most of that region has become blanketed by much more recent Quaternary sediments . In Peru's Cordillera Oriental a "Famatinian" orogeny exists which is coeval with the classical Famatinian orogeny found further south. In the time-span from 480 Ma to 435 Ma (Late Cambrian to Silurian) rocks of Cordillera Oriental were deformed and a magmatic arc developed. Towards what

1845-473: The peak of the orogeny resulted from the collision of the Cuyania terrane with Pampia in the Ordovician. It has been suggested that the coeval Appalachian Taconic orogeny is the "northward" continuation of the Famatinian orogeny. This has been explained by adding that the continent Laurentia could have collided with Gondwana (at what is today western South America) in early Paleozoic times due to

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1890-470: The portion of continent into detachable slivers. The continental fragments are located at various angles from their transform faults . Some microcontinents are fragments of Gondwana or other ancient cratonic continents; examples include Madagascar ; the northern Mascarene Plateau , which includes the Seychelles Microcontinent ; and the island of Timor . Other islands, such as several in

1935-465: The primary source of lithium either as spodumene, lithiophyllite or usually from lepidolite. The primary source for caesium is pollucite , a mineral from a zoned pegmatite. The majority of the world's beryllium is sourced from non-gem quality beryl within pegmatite. Tantalum, niobium, and rare-earth elements are sourced from a few pegmatites worldwide, such as the Greenbushes Pegmatite ,

1980-439: The right constituents and water, at the right temperature. A metasomatic pegmatite would be formed by hydrothermal circulation of hot alteration fluids upon a rock mass, with bulk chemical and textural change. Metasomatism is currently not favored as a mechanism for pegmatite formation and it is likely that metamorphism and magmatism are both contributors toward the conditions necessary for pegmatite genesis. Most pegmatites have

2025-565: The western part of Sierras Pampeanas bears evidence of the Famatinian orogeny; the eastern parts appear to have been largely unaffected. In northern Chile the Belén Metamorphic Complex is thought to have been subject to metamorphism that was "time-equivalent" to the Famatinian orogeny in the early Paleozoic. It can this be considered part of the orogen in a broad sense. To the south in La Pampa Province , outcrops associated with

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