Elizabeth J. Perry , FBA ( Chinese : 裴宜理 ; pinyin : Péi Yílǐ ; born 9 September 1948) is an American political scientist specialized in Chinese politics and history . She currently is the Henry Rosovsky Professor of Government at Harvard University. She is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , a corresponding fellow of the British Academy , a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship, and served as Director of Harvard's Fairbank Center for East Asian Research from 1999 to 2003 and as president of the Association for Asian Studies in 2007.
60-472: (Redirected from Fairbank Prize ) The John K. Fairbank Prize in East Asian History is offered annually for an outstanding book in the history of China proper , Vietnam , Chinese Central Asia , Mongolia , Manchuria , Korea , or Japan , substantially after 1800. It honors the late John K. Fairbank , Francis Lee Higginson Professor of History and director of
120-663: A Hinterland: State, Society, and Economy in Inland North China, 1853-1937 University of California Press 1995 Kären Wigen The Making of Japanese Periphery, 1750-1920 University of California Press 1996 David G. Marr Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power University of California Press 1997 Paul A. Cohen History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth Columbia University Press 1998 Louise Young Japan's Total Empire: Manchuria and
180-639: A result, history is highly consequential in the study of contemporary politics. She had been sympathetic with the Cultural Revolution as a student, and joined the Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars , a group that opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War. After witnessing the inequality in Communist China and hearing people's personal accounts about their suffering during the period, her views on
240-521: A result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China. The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed. Beijing and Tianjin were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili), Shanghai from Jiangsu, Chongqing from Sichuan, Ningxia autonomous region from Gansu , and Hainan from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an autonomous region . The provinces that
300-411: A single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions. In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and Chinese" or "Chinese" only. 98% of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China proper,
360-466: Is based on the succession of states principle. According to sinologist Colin Mackerras , foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to
420-662: Is no fixed extent for China proper , as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history . One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the Central Plain (in the North China Plain ); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no direct translation for "China proper " in the Chinese language at the time due to differences in terminology used by
480-705: Is still a controversial subject. See History of Taiwan and Political status of Taiwan for more information. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government . Elizabeth J. Perry Perry was born in Shanghai , shortly before the Chinese Communist Revolution , to American missionary parents who were professors at St. John's University . She grew up in Tokyo , Japan in
540-1013: The American Historical Association Leo Gershoy Award Beveridge Award John H. Dunning Prize John K. Fairbank Prize AHA Prize in European International History Herbert Baxter Adams Prize George L. Mosse Prize J. Russell Major Prize Justin Winsor Prize (history) Paul Birdsall Prize James A. Rawley Prize (AHA) Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_K._Fairbank_Prize&oldid=1252715822 " Categories : Historiography of China Asian awards Awards established in 1969 American Historical Association book prizes China proper China proper , also called Inner China , are terms used primarily in
600-457: The Central Plain and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of Fujian , one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern Kham in Greater Tibet was added to Sichuan , while much of what now constitutes northern Burma was added to Yunnan . Near the end of
660-536: The First French Empire , which Napoleon managed to expand all the way to Moscow . According to Harry Harding , the concept can date back to 1827. But as early as in 1795, William Winterbotham adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, Chinese Tartary , and the states tributary to China . He adopted
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#1732855658383720-834: The discovery of multiple cases of plagiarism and fabricated sources in the book , the American Historical Association initiated an inquiry, after which Charles Armstrong returned the prize to the Association. References [ edit ] ^ [1] American Historical Association. ^ "2014 Fairbank Prize Returned" . historians.org . American Historical Association . June 29, 2017. ^ https://www.historians.org/perspectives-article/american-historical-association-announces-2024-prize-winners/ External links [ edit ] John K. Fairbank Prize WorldCat listing. v t e Prizes and awards of
780-588: The "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun; 中國 , Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus. While the Qing dynasty used "China" (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and
840-637: The 1950s and participated in the 1960 Anpo protests against the US-Japan Security Treaty . She returned to the United States and attended William Smith College , where she earned her B.A. summa cum laude in 1969. In 1978, she received her Ph.D. in political science from the University of Michigan where her dissertation committee included Michel Oksenberg , Norma Diamond , Albert Feuerwerker , and Allen Whiting . Her doctoral thesis explored
900-861: The Chinese Communist Revolution and Maoism changed fundamentally. Her book, Shanghai on Strike: the Politics of Chinese Labor (1993) won the John K. Fairbank Prize from the American Historical Association . Her article "From Mencius to Mao – and Now: Chinese Conceptions of Socioeconomic Rights" (2008) won the Heinz Eulau Prize from the American Political Science Association . Perry received honorary doctorate degrees from Hobart and William Smith Colleges and from
960-847: The Chinese Dilemma of Modernity University of California Press 1981 Conrad Totman The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1862-1868 University of Hawaii Press 1983 Bruce Cumings The Origins of the Korean War: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945-47 Princeton University Press 1985 Philip C. Huang The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China Stanford University Press 1986 Carol Gluck Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in
1020-565: The Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876-1945 University of Washington Press Kathryn Bernhardt Rents, Taxes, and Peasant Resistance: The Lower Yangzi Region, 1840-1950 Stanford University Press 1993 Elizabeth J. Perry Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor Stanford University Press Stefan Tanaka Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History University of California Press 1994 Kenneth Pomeranz The Making of
1080-880: The Construction of Japan’s Borderless Empire University of California Press 2021 Eric Schluessel Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia Columbia University Press 2022 Hwasook B. Nam Women in the Sky: Gender and Labor in the Making of Modern Korea Cornell University Press 2023 H. Yumi Kim Madness in the Family: Women, Care, and Illness in Japan Oxford University Press 2024 Tristan G. Brown Laws of
1140-1921: The Culture of Wartime Imperialism University of California Press 1999 John W. Dower Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II W.W. Norton & Co./New Press 2000 Kenneth Pomeranz The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy Princeton University Press 2001 Peter Zinoman The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862-1940 University of California Press 2002 Julia Adeney Thomas Reconfiguring Modernity: Concepts of Nature in Japanese Political Ideology University of California Press 2003 Norman J. Girardot The Victorian Translation of China: James Legge's Oriental Pilgrimage University of California Press 2004 Jordan Sand House and Home in Modern Japan: Architecture, Domestic Space, and Bourgeois Culture, 1880-1930 Harvard University Asia Center 2005 Ruth Rogaski Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-port China University of California Press 2006 Madeleine Zelin The Merchants of Zigong: Industrial Entrepreneurship in Early Modern China Columbia University Press 2007 Eugenia Lean Public Passions: The Trial of Shi Jianqiao and
1200-530: The East Asian Research Center at Harvard University, and president of the American Historical Association in 1968. Only books of high scholarly and literary merit will be considered. Anthologies, edited works, and pamphlets are ineligible for the competition. List of prizes [ edit ] Year Recipient Title Publisher 1969 Harold Zvi Schiffrin Sun Yat-Sen and
1260-519: The Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity. However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of Yunnan , Guangxi , and Guizhou , was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including
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#17328556583831320-580: The Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the Han and Tang dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into Inner Asia , while others, such as the Jin and Song dynasties, were forced to relinquish
1380-527: The Japanese invasion of Mongolia, Manchuria , and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of " Zhonghua minzu " (Chinese nation), which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the Second Sino-Japanese War , and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu. Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since
1440-609: The Land: Fengshui and the State in Qing Dynasty China Princeton University Press See also [ edit ] Joseph Levenson Book Prize for Chinese history. John Whitney Hall Book Prize for Japanese or Korean history. James B. Palais Book Prize for Korean history. List of history awards List of prizes named after people Notes [ edit ] ^ Following
1500-1089: The Late Meiji Period Princeton University Press 1987 Joseph W. Esherick The Origins of the Boxer Uprising University of California Press 1988 Sheldon Garon The State and Labor in Modern Japan University of California Press 1989 Prasenjit Duara Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942 Stanford University Press 1990 Miriam Silverberg Changing Song: The Marxist Manifestos of Nakano Shigeharu Princeton University Press 1991 Andrew Gordon Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan University of California Press 1992 Carter J. Eckert Offspring of Empire: The Ko-ch'ang Kims and
1560-490: The Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to
1620-663: The Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the Zhuang , the Miao people , and the Bouyei . Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by
1680-447: The Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely Manchuria , Mongolia , Xinjiang , Taiwan and Tibet . The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the "Eighteen Provinces" ( 一十八行省 ; Yīshíbā Xíngshěng , or 十八省 ; Shíbā Shěng ) of China proper under
1740-481: The North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces ( Chinese : 布政使司 ; pinyin : Bùzhèngshǐ Sī ) and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded
1800-1042: The Origins of the Chinese Revolution University of California Press Tetsuo Najita Hara Kei in the Politics of Compromise, 1905-1915 Harvard University Press 1971 Jerome B. Grieder Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-37 Harvard University Press 1973 William G. Beasley The Meiji Restoration Stanford University Press 1975 Jian Youwen The Taiping Revolutionary Movement Yale University Press 1977 Gail Lee Bernstein Japanese Marxist: A Portrait of Kawakami Hajime, 1879-1946 Harvard University Press 1979 Guy S. Alitto The Last Confucian: Liang Shu-ming and
1860-571: The Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895. Xinjiang was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of Fengtian , Jilin and Heilongjiang in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, Qinghai (Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside
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1920-489: The Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper. There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, some parts of Manchuria were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now Liaoning ), which is inside the Ming Great Wall ; however, the Qing conquered it before entering
1980-410: The Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ( 中國人 , Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759 , they proclaimed that the new land
2040-402: The Qing to refer to the regions. Even to today, the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in mainland China , due to issues pertaining to contemporary territorial claim and ethnic politics. Outer China usually includes the geographical regions of Dzungaria , Tarim Basin , Gobi Desert , Tibetan Plateau , Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau , and Manchuria . It is not clear when
2100-518: The Ryukyus and Japan , who paid tribute to Qing China or were vassal states of China but were not part of China. In the early 20th century, a series of Sino-Japanese conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a unified, undivided Chinese nation became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939, Gu Jiegang published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately", which argued that
2160-598: The US resumed academic exchange in 1979, she spent a year at Nanjing University as a visiting scholar, researching Chinese secret societies under Cai Shaoqing and the Taiping Rebellion under Mao Jiaqi [ zh ] . In 2007, Perry was named director of the Harvard-Yenching Institute , effective July 1, 2008. In January 2024, James Robson was announced as her successor. Perry's research focuses on
2220-878: The Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950-1992 Cornell University Press 2015 Rian Thum The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History Harvard University Press 2016 Barak Kushner Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice Harvard University Press 2017 Christopher Goscha Vietnam: A New History Basic Books 2018 Thomas Mullaney The Chinese Typewriter: A History MIT Press 2019 Chris Courtney The Nature of Disaster in China: The 1931 Yangzi River Flood Cambridge University Press 2020 Eiichiro Azuma In Search of Our Frontier: Japanese America and Settler Colonialism in
2280-560: The West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu -led Qing dynasty to describe the distinction between the historical "Han lands" ( 漢地 )—i.e. regions long dominated by the majority Han population—and the "frontier" regions of China where more non-Han ethnic groups and new foreign immigrants (e.g. Russians ) reside, sometimes known as "Outer China". There
2340-531: The borders of Ming China, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty. Han Chinese intellectuals gradually embraced the new meaning of "China" and began to recognize it as their homeland. The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" ( 內地十八省 ), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" ( 內地 ), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" ( 郡县 ), while they referred to
2400-455: The concept of "China proper" in the Western world appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to Great Britain proper versus the British Empire , which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to France proper in contrast to
2460-417: The concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the Ming–Qing transition . The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in The Gentleman's Magazine , published in 1790, and The Monthly Review , published in 1749. In the nineteenth century,
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2520-415: The current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the Chinese language . The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as East Turkestan ( Chinese Turkestan ) for the Uyghurs impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which
2580-405: The different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)". In the Manchu official Tulisen 's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuki Khan , it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians,
2640-426: The history of the Chinese Communist Revolution and its implications for contemporary politics. Although she earned all her degrees in political science, much of her research focuses on history and its links to contemporary issues. She observes that contemporary China consciously sees itself as an outgrowth of its long history, and Chinese political leaders are keenly aware of history, even if they may misunderstand it. As
2700-630: The late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning. When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in Tibet and Mongolian People's Republic (former Outer Mongolia ) since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on
2760-418: The late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than
2820-419: The mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the Qamdo area into the Tibet area (later the Tibet Autonomous Region ). The Republic of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in 1946, which was also acknowledged by the PRC government since its founding in 1949. China proper is often associated with
2880-438: The much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive Tang dynasty boundaries?" There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic. One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by dynasties of China founded by
2940-427: The name of Kiang-nan ( 江南 , Jiāngnán) province, which had been called South Zhili ( 南直隶 , Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., Jiangnan ) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that
3000-405: The non-Han areas of China such as the Northeast , Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" ( 外藩 ) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" ( 藩部 , "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó ( 外國 , "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam,
3060-491: The opinions of Du Halde and Grosier and suspected that the name of "China" came from Qin dynasty . He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..." However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the Ming dynasty , which the Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses
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#17328556583833120-491: The provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912. The Provinces of the Qing Dynasty were: Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by their Eighteen-Star Flag . Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by their Five-Striped Flag. Some revolutionaries, such as Zou Rong , used
3180-925: The rise of Popular Sympathy in Republican China University of California Press 2008 Susan L. Mann The Talented Women of the Zhang Family University of California Press 2009 Klaus Mühlhahn Criminal Justice in China: A History Harvard University Press 2010 James C. Scott The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia Yale University Press 2011 Carol A. Benedict Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550-2010 University of California Press 2012 Jun Uchida Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876-1945 Harvard East Asian Monographs 2013 Barbara Mittler A Continuous Revolution : Making Sense of Cultural Revolution Culture Harvard University Asia Center 2014 Charles K. Armstrong Tyranny of
3240-476: The term Zhongguo Benbu ( 中国本部 ) which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces. When the Qing dynasty fell, the abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new Republic of China , and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of Five Races Under One Union , with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag
3300-452: The term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain Zeng Jize used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887. "Dulimbai Gurun" is the Manchu name for China ( 中國 , Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in
3360-418: The territories newly acquired by the Qing empire. In the early 19th century, Wei Yuan 's Shengwuji (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the Inner Asian polities guo , while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called " Zhongguo ". Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside
3420-433: The tradition of peasant rebellions of the Huaibei region of northern China and the Communist Revolution. Perry took her first teaching job at the University of Arizona before becoming an assistant, then associate professor at the University of Washington (1978-1990); she then taught at the University of California, Berkeley as Robson Professor of Political Science, 1990-1997 before moving to Harvard. When China and
3480-424: The widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the Chinese dynasties . Gu further theorized that " 中国本部 ", the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for
3540-546: Was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" ( 中外一家 ) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" ( 內外一家 , "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of
3600-418: Was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent Mongolia . As
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