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51-433: The FDC regulates almost all issues related to doping , corruption , arbitration , racism , stadium bans , etc... It also details the code of conduct of football's world governing body. The FDC decisions and regulations engages the following FIFA committees: This association football article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Doping (sport) In competitive sports, doping

102-603: A syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle. The use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said: Hicks was, in the phrase of the time, "between life and death" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics. In 1977 one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld , fled to

153-494: A thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s. Everton , one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season, and it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted

204-577: A collection of riders who identify themselves as a team to those who provide riders with equipment and money. A top-level professional team is registered with the Union Cycliste Internationale , which enforces rules and a points system for professional competition. Team members have different specializations. Climbing specialists grind away on hard inclines; sprinters save their energy for sprints for points and position; time trialists keep speed high over great distances. Each team has

255-691: A doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over "a few drinks", repeatedly asked "What are you giving your boys?" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought

306-613: A drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia. The most common prohibited substances for doping in sport are: Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine , cocaine , amphetamine , modafinil , and ephedrine . Caffeine, although

357-631: A drug without after-effects and hit upon the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone , first made in the US in 1958 by Ciba and marketed as Dianabol (colloquially known as "d-bol"). The results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe , a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: "We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on

408-440: A leader and captain, generally reckoned as the team's most experienced rider. The leaders have the most media exposure and the best chance of winning races. The rest of the team's members are domestiques , or secondary riders, who shield the leader from opponents and deliver food and drinks to him. However, any team member is allowed to go for a stage win. In one-day races , one or several leaders are chosen according to demands of

459-651: A little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine." Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 percent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: "A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons." Brand name Dianabol

510-685: A mixture called "butotens" to greatly improve their physical power at the risk of insanity, which is thought to have been prepared using the Amanita muscaria mushroom. The ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have had forms of doping. In ancient Rome , where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races. From that moment, people started to introduce their specific diets to improve their performance. Lots of athletes were mainly focusing on achieving superiority and winning

561-615: A professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Linford Christie of Great Britain

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612-579: A stimulant, has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004. It has a positive effect on various physical parameters, most of all endurance, but also on velocity, strength, reaction time and specific actions like throwing performance. Other ways of cheating that change the body without using foreign substances include injecting one's own red blood cells as done with doping at

663-670: A study commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program. Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take

714-570: A year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story. East Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977 the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, failed a test for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left

765-412: Is a team sport , but collaboration between team members is also important in track cycling and cyclo-cross . While riders form the core of a team, a top team also has personnel who support the racing and training. These include There are also officers for sponsorship, marketing, and communication. There are different levels of commitment between the riders and the team. Amateur teams range from

816-579: Is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles . Its perceived effects gave it the street name "speed". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that "Methedrine won

867-581: Is considered unethical and is prohibited by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee . Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating. The origins of doping in sports go back to the creation of the sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in doping in baseball , doping in tennis , doping at

918-491: Is important that tests are conducted by independent organizations that treat each athlete equally, indifferent of fame or nationality. A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson 's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics . He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol , testosterone, Furazabol , and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson

969-611: Is no longer produced but the drug methandrostenolone itself is still made in many countries and other, similar drugs are made elsewhere. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the ATP , WTA , ITF , International Olympic Committee , FIFA , UEFA , all major professional golf tours , the National Hockey League , Major League Baseball , the National Basketball Association ,

1020-586: Is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) by athletes, as a way of cheating . As stated in the World Anti-Doping Code by WADA, doping is defined as the occurrence of one or more of the anti-doping rule violations outlined in Article 2.1 through Article 2.11 of the Code. The term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance

1071-399: Is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephedrone , ephedrone , and fluoroamphetamines , which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine . These "de facto experiments investigating

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1122-898: The European Athletic Association , WWE , the NFL , and the UCI . However, drug testing can be wildly inconsistent and, in some instances, has gone unenforced. A number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At

1173-558: The 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. An IOC official stated that endocrine profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned. Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement, decreasing

1224-463: The Battle of Britain" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as

1275-690: The CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone , which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol . During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system. The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of

1326-527: The IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won. After that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports-writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the Edmonton Sun , who said: Other reports came from

1377-527: The Olympic Games , and doping at the Tour de France , popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to regulate the use of drugs in sports strictly. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and

1428-503: The Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol , which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that "dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities." The 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: "You need never go off-course chasing

1479-954: The Tour de France , treating blood with UV light or the use of a hyperbaric chamber (not currently banned), and, potentially, gene doping . Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein ), acne , high blood pressure , and liver damage . Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs. AAS use in American sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler ,

1530-498: The United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with

1581-563: The West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany at the 1980 Summer Olympics. She brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for

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1632-517: The banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for

1683-435: The collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes. There are two different types of controls that can be conducted in competition or in training. It

1734-689: The competition by increasing muscle strength capacity, and endurance. Charmis, the Spartan winner of the Stade race in the Olympic Games of 668BC, introduced the special diet of consuming enough dried figs during the training period. A participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates ) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 800 kilometres (500 mi) and

1785-555: The country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control; it reputedly made around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague . In the reverse of what

1836-506: The crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for "healers"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing . Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine , a drug used to stimulate

1887-400: The drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics . One approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants

1938-515: The exemplary effect of drug-free sports for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the "spirit of sport". The use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial to help increase muscle. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink

1989-562: The following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington , London, to 840 kilometres (520 mi). The Illustrated London News chided: The event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists. The fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and appealed to

2040-482: The goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying: The club agreed that drugs had been used but that they "could not possibly have had any harmful effect." Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict. In November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took "seven packets of amphetamine" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at

2091-543: The heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders had hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand." Public reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said: The father of anabolic steroids in

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2142-414: The intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [ lessivés – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine." Soigneurs A cycling team is a group of cyclists who join a team or are acquired and train together to compete in bicycle races whether amateur or professional – and the supporting personnel. Cycling teams are most important in road bicycle racing , which

2193-497: The occasional athlete who fled to the West – 15 of them between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach , said: "Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training." He said: "For every Olympic champion, there are at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by

2244-719: The old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures." John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion." Over 30% of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships in Athletics admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to

2295-429: The peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers." The Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care: Currently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have failed tests for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as

2346-528: The physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion" were not unknown outside cycling. Thomas Hicks , an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz , who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out

2397-431: The race. In stage races , teams focus on different goals. For example, during the 2005 Tour de France teams such as Discovery Channel or T-Mobile focused on the general classification while other teams tried to win stages or one of the other classifications. In the 2004 Tour de France , Quick-Step–Davitamon helped Richard Virenque win the mountains classification while Lotto–Domo helped Robbie McEwen win

2448-458: The same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988. Now it is regarded as negative test; the acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz,

2499-479: The sensation of fatigue and improving motor coordination. The latter happens via improvement of the interaction between nervous system and musculature. It has greater effect when an athlete is already exhausted - the period when the coordination suffers the most. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Benzedrine

2550-536: Was found to have metabolites of pseudoephedrine in his urine after a 200m heat at the same Olympics, but was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist Calvin Smith of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medalist." The CBC radio documentary, Rewind , "Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced" broadcast on 19 September 2013, for

2601-559: Was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned: Lewis had tested positive at the Olympic Trials for pseudoephedrine , ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine . Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed

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