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116-658: At the December 1941 Arcadia Conference between President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Washington, shortly after the United States entered the War, the decision for the "Europe First" strategy was affirmed. However, U.S. statistics show that the United States devoted more resources in the early part of the war to stopping the advance of Japan, and not until 1944

232-735: A Freemason , raised "at sight" by the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia. ("At sight" is the procedure by which a Grand Master confers on a candidate all three Masonic degrees – Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master – at one time.) As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in American history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at

348-579: A 2010 book, Citizens of London: The Americans Who Stood with Britain in Its Darkest, Finest Hour , author Lynne Olson described Winant as dramatically changing the U.S. stance as ambassador when succeeding pro-appeasement ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. In the spring of 1941, W. Averell Harriman served President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a special envoy to Europe and helped coordinate the Lend-Lease program. The two countries reaffirmed that, "notwithstanding

464-555: A 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat. The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers. In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944. Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only

580-600: A Japanese attack on the island impossible. These recommendations were dismissed by the President but could have been catastrophic if they had not been. Ten days after the attack, Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel , commander of the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor , were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While

696-603: A Second Award of the Army Distinguished Service Medal to General of the Army George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (ASN: 0-1616), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during the period from September 1939 through November 1945. The singularly distinctive accomplishments of General Marshall reflect

812-515: A consequence of the immediate threat and the need to contain Japan's advance across the Pacific, American resources allocated to the defeat of Japan initially exceeded those allocated to Europe. In the first six months the U.S. was in the war, the U.S. army deployed more than 300,000 soldiers overseas to the Pacific while less than 100,000 were sent to Europe. The U.S.'s first major offensive during World War II

928-490: A cross-Channel operation". King once complained that the Pacific deserved 30% of Allied resources but was getting only 15%, perhaps partly because the two men did not get along, the combined influence of King and General Douglas MacArthur increased the allocation of resources to the Pacific War. General Hastings Ismay , chief of staff to Winston Churchill , described King as: tough as nails and carried himself as stiffly as

1044-404: A deep laceration to one of his buttocks. While being treated for his injury, Marshall refused to inform on his classmates. Impressed with his bravery, the hazers never bothered him again. During his years at VMI, Marshall always ranked first in military discipline and about midway academically. He attained the rank of first captain, the highest a cadet could achieve, and graduated 15th of 34 in

1160-466: A dinner party. They married on 15 October 1930, at Emmanuel Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland . The wedding made headlines as General Pershing served as Marshall's best man. From June 1932 to June 1933, Marshall was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven , Georgia . From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie , South Carolina, and District I of

1276-670: A few of its non-commissioned officers had been in the Army for two years or more, and nearly all of the lieutenants had been commissioned less than six months". In late 1917, General John J. Pershing , the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the AEF, inspected the 1st Division. Unimpressed by what he observed, Pershing began to berate the division commander, Major General Sibert, in front of his staff, including Marshall. Sibert took Pershing's criticism in silence, but when Pershing turned his attention to

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1392-445: A few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat. The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days. Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at

1508-596: A letter to President William McKinley compared him favorably to other VMI graduates serving in the Army, saying Marshall was "Fully the equal of the best." He was commissioned a second lieutenant of Infantry in February 1902. In a matter of days he married, resigned the Danville job, and shipped out to serve with the 30th Infantry Regiment in the Philippines . Prior to World War I , Marshall received various postings in

1624-479: A marked influence on the successes achieved by the units with which he served. After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank of captain. In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General Pershing. Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff , Marshall worked on a number of projects that focused on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. He taught at the Army War College and

1740-522: A newspaper for the CCC region that provided a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed participants' skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American Pacific Northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and

1856-593: A poker. He was blunt and stand-offish, almost to the point of rudeness. At the start, he was intolerant and suspicious of all things British, especially the Royal Navy ; but he was almost equally intolerant and suspicious of the American Army . War against Japan was the problem to which he had devoted the study of a lifetime, and he resented the idea of American resources being used for any other purpose than to destroy Japanese. He mistrusted Churchill's powers of advocacy, and

1972-667: A program that became known as the Marshall Plan , and which led to his being awarded the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize . After resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross . As Secretary of Defense at the start of the Korean War , Marshall worked to restore the military's confidence and morale after

2088-521: A reality. However, despite the majority of American resources going into Europe in 1944, the U.S. still had sufficient resources to mount several major military operations in the Pacific that year: Saipan (June 1944); Guam (July 1944); Peleliu (September 1944); and the liberation of the Philippines at Leyte in October 1944. In 1944 and 1945, the balance of U.S. resources shifted heavily toward Europe as

2204-521: A series of major decisions that shaped the war effort in 1942–1943. Arcadia was the first meeting on military strategy between Britain and the United States; it came two weeks after the American entry into World War II. The Arcadia Conference was a secret agreement unlike the much wider postwar plans given to the public as the Atlantic Charter , agreed between Churchill and Roosevelt in August 1941. From

2320-609: A year at Uniontown's Central School. Having decided early in life that he desired a career in the military, but unlikely to obtain an appointment to the United States Military Academy because of his average grades, he looked to the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) for a formal education. Marshall's brother Stuart, a VMI alumnus, believed George would not succeed and argued that their mother should not let George attend out of concern that he would "disgrace

2436-553: The 1st Division for service in France. Shortly after the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall had roles as a planner of both training and operations. In the summer, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the newly created 1st Division , commanded by Major General William L. Sibert , a fifty-six-year-old engineer officer. After overseeing

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2552-532: The Army War College , coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. Under his name were produced significant works of doctrine such as Field Manual 100-5 . During his first week in office, he advised Roosevelt to issue an executive order expanding the Regular Army to 227,000 troops and the National Guard to 235,000 reservists, although the President could not immediately act because

2668-710: The Battle of Britain , and by its marked inferiority in naval power. At the same time, war with Japan in East Asia seemed increasingly likely. Although the U.S. was not yet at war, it met with the UK on several occasions to formulate joint strategies. In the March 29, 1941 report of the ABC-1 conference, the Americans and British agreed that their strategic objectives were: (1) "The early defeat of Germany as

2784-666: The Battle of Kasserine Pass and other major battles. Even as late as 1944, American soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there. Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division army with a system of unit rotation such as that practiced by the British and other Allies. By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of

2900-748: The Civilian Conservation Corps . He was promoted colonel in September 1933. During the Great Depression , Marshall became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal . Army Chief of Staff Douglas MacArthur , who was a Republican and with whom Marshall had a contentious relationship, did not appreciate Marshall's views. After only a few months at Ft. Moultrie, MacArthur engineered Marshall's abrupt transfer to Chicago, where he served as senior instructor and chief of staff for

3016-688: The Danville Military Institute in Danville, Virginia . He took a competitive examination for a commission in the United States Army, which had greatly expanded to deal with the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War . Marshall passed and used endorsements his father obtained from both of Pennsylvania's U.S. Senators to bolster his application. VMI Superintendent Scott Shipp also supported Marshall's application, and in

3132-698: The Philippines . On 7 of December, Canada declared war on Japan. Followed on December 8, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands declared war on Japan, followed by China and Australia the next day. Four days after Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, drawing the country into a two-theater war. The conference brought together the top British and American military leaders, as well as Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt and their aides, in Washington from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942, and led to

3248-743: The Republic of China , where he had served in the 1920s. His new mission was to prevent a resumption of the Chinese Civil War by brokering a coalition government between America's Kuomintang allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party of Mao Zedong . Marshall had no leverage over the Communists but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and he returned to

3364-567: The Silver Star medal was created in 1932, Citation Stars were converted to the new award. In mid-1918, Pershing brought Marshall on to the AEF operations staff, G-3, where he worked closely with Pershing and was a key planner of American operations. He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of the Meuse–Argonne offensive , which contributed to the defeat of the German Empire on

3480-766: The United States and Prime Minister Churchill of the United Kingdom attended the conference, where they discussed a future United Nations , and representative of the Allies adopted the United Nations Declaration . On 7/8 December 1941, Japan invaded Thailand and attacked the British colonies of Malaya , Singapore , and Hong Kong as well as the United States military and naval bases in Hawaii , Wake Island , Guam , and

3596-711: The United States Army War College ) class. After graduating in 1908, Marshall was assigned as an instructor at the Infantry-Cavalry School. After another tour of duty in the Philippines beginning in 1913, Marshall returned in 1916 to serve as aide-de-camp to Major General J. Franklin Bell , the commander of the Western Department and former Army Chief of Staff , at the Presidio of San Francisco . In

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3712-724: The United States Congress cut $ 10 million from a $ 28 million appropriation budget for equipment to detect Imperial Japanese Armed Forces aircraft off the West Coast of the United States . Marshall met with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. and they went to see Roosevelt; Marshall emphasized the supreme importance of getting the full amount and told Roosevelt "you have got to do something and you've got to do it today". Marshall's advocacy worked and he got "all he wanted and more". In 1941, Marshall became

3828-584: The United States Congress still favored isolationism . Marshall's efforts to expand the United States Armed Forces began to have more success after the Axis powers conquered most of Western Europe in the Battle of France . Beginning in July 1940, he was greatly assisted in this effort by newly appointed Secretary of War Henry Stimson, whom Marshall would gradually displace as the most significant leader of

3944-661: The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) in 1901. He received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February 1902 and immediately went to the Philippines. He served in the United States and overseas in positions of increasing rank, including platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War . He was the top-ranked of the five Honor Graduates of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907 and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class. In 1916 Marshall

4060-613: The Western Front in 1918. Marshall held the permanent rank of captain and the temporary rank of colonel and was recommended for promotion to temporary brigadier general in October 1918, but the Armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918 occurred before the recommendation was acted on. After the Armistice, Marshall served as chief of staff for the VIII Corps . For his services during

4176-591: The field marshals of European Allies; Marshall had objected to being awarded the title of field marshal, as it would have given him the title of "Marshal Marshall". Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in both Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff on 18 November 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of

4292-548: The 1st Army from 17 October to 19 November 1918; and as Chief of Staff of the 8th Army Corps from 20 November 1918 to 15 January 1918, during which period the 1st Division served in the Toul sector and at the Cantigny attack and the 1st Army operations in the St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives. By untiring, painstaking, and energetic efforts he succeeded in all these undertakings. His efforts had

4408-458: The 1st Division, which, over the winter, "completed extensive training, much of it under French tutelage". By mid-April 1918 the division, now commanded by Major General Robert Lee Bullard , was deemed to have progressed enough in its training to have its own sector of the Western Front to hold. Marshall won recognition and acclaim for his planning of the Battle of Cantigny , which took place from 28 to 31 May 1918; Marshall's success resulted in

4524-461: The Army Chief of Staff. At the time of the appointment, Marshall was only 34th in seniority, outranked by 21 major generals and 11 brigadier generals, but he was fifth under an unwritten rule that the chief of staff should be able to serve a four-year term before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64. Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on 1 July 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff. President Roosevelt favored Marshall because he

4640-423: The Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941. Marshall also advised President Roosevelt to move part of the United States Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to assist Neutrality Patrols , and that the defenses at Oahu made

4756-434: The Army remain on active duty for life. He was succeeded as Army chief of staff by General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower. During this time, he also received a Bronze oak leaf cluster to his Army DSM for his unprecedented work from 1939 to 1945. The medal's citation reads: The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress 9 July 1918, takes pleasure in presenting a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of

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4872-404: The Army's Infantry School , where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II . In 1932 and 1933, he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven , Georgia . Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938; he received promotion to brigadier general . During this command, Marshall

4988-413: The British to strengthen their forces in the Pacific. Arcadia created a unified American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDA) in the Far East; the ABDA fared poorly. It was also agreed at the conference to combine military resources under one command in the European Theater of Operations (ETO). George Marshall George Catlett Marshall Jr. GCB (31 December 1880 – 16 October 1959)

5104-420: The Class of 1901. Marshall received a diploma, not a degree. At the time of his graduation, the top five or six VMI graduates received bachelor's degrees. The rest received diplomas attesting to their status as graduates. He played offensive tackle on the football team and in 1900 he was selected for All-Southern honors. Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall served as Commandant of Students at

5220-437: The Europe First strategy became a reality rather than just a stated objective. At war's end in Europe, the U.S. Army had 47 divisions in Europe and 21 divisions, plus 6 Marine Corps divisions, in the Pacific. 78% of Army and Army Air Force manpower was deployed against Germany versus 22% deployed in the Pacific. The plan to invade Japan envisioned that 15 of the European divisions (and the Eighth Air Force) would be transferred to

5336-412: The Illinois National Guard's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936. Marshall was assigned to command the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington , from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936. In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to

5452-459: The Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editor of Infantry in Battle , a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II. Marshall's first wife died in 1927. The following year, while stationed at Fort Benning, Marshall met Katherine Tupper Brown at

5568-440: The Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan would help Europe rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines and open up new opportunities for international trade. Stalin ordered his satellites in Eastern Europe not to participate. Marshall was again named "Man of the Year" by Time in January 1948. Truman repeatedly rejected Marshall's advice on Middle Eastern policy. As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing

5684-578: The Pacific (Japan), Hitler might crush the Soviet Union, and would then become an unconquerable fortress in Europe. The wound inflicted on the United States by Japan's attack on the US at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, did not result in a change in U.S. policy. Churchill hastened to Washington shortly after Pearl Harbor for the Arcadia Conference to ensure that the Americans didn't have second thoughts about Europe First. In 1941, Roosevelt appointed John Gilbert Winant ambassador to Britain, and Winant remained in that post until he resigned in March 1946. In

5800-471: The Pacific were subject to interpretation and modification by U.S. senior military commanders and at allied leaders conferences. The strategic situation in the Pacific and related logistical requirements dominated the United States' actions after its entry into the war and led to an initial focus on the Pacific. Even in the later stages of the war, there was intense competition for resources as operations in both regions were scaled up. The "Europe First" strategy

5916-417: The Pacific, the U.S. aided the Europe First strategy by defending Australia and New Zealand and thus enabling experienced troops from those countries to remain deployed against German forces. Nonetheless, the inability of the two allies to mount an invasion of German-controlled northern Europe in 1943 permitted the U.S. to maintain more military forces arrayed against Japan than Germany during the first two years

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6032-470: The Pacific. The uncritical view that "Europe First" dictated the allocation of resources throughout the war has caused many scholars to underestimate the resources required to defeat Japan. For example, historian H. P. Willmott stated that the United States "allocated little more than one-quarter of her total war effort to the struggle against Japan." That may be an underestimate which does not take into account that, according to official U.S. statistics, 70% of

6148-430: The Truman administration's initial entreaties. As a result, the Marshall Plan program for the Netherlands' economic recovery was put on hold and the Truman administration threatened to cut all economic aid. The Netherlands finally agreed to withdraw and transferred sovereignty following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in 1949. Marshall resigned as Secretary of State because of ill health on 7 January 1949. He

6264-428: The U.S. Navy and all the Marine Corps were deployed in the Pacific as well as the 22% of the Army deployed to the Pacific at the time of Germany's surrender in May 1945. Arcadia Conference The First Washington Conference , also known as the Arcadia Conference ( ARCADIA was the code name used for the conference), was held in Washington, D.C., from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942. President Roosevelt of

6380-445: The U.S. abandon the Germany-first strategy and take the offensive in the Pacific. Roosevelt "disapproved" the proposal saying it would do nothing to help Russia. With Roosevelt's support, and Marshall unable to persuade the British to change their minds, in July 1942 Operation Torch was scheduled for later that year. The Europe First strategy remained in effect throughout the war but the terms "holding action" and "limited offensive" in

6496-561: The U.S. military apparatus in a deviation from the United States' tradition of civilian control of the military . Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers. Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower , Jacob L. Devers , George S. Patton , Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. , Lloyd Fredendall , Lesley J. McNair , Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley . Faced with

6612-421: The U.S. was in the war. As late as December 1943, the balance was nearly even. Against Japan, the U.S. had deployed 1,873,023 men, 7,857 aircraft, and 713 warships. Against Germany the totals were 1,810,367 men, 8,807 airplanes, and 515 warships. In early 1944, the military buildup of American forces for the invasion of France shifted the balance of American resources toward the European theater and made Europe First

6728-399: The United States on December 11, 1941, the United States faced a decision about how to allocate resources between these two separate theaters of war. On the one hand, Japan had attacked the United States directly at Pearl Harbor, and the Japanese Navy threatened United States territory in a way that Germany, with a limited surface fleet, was not in a position to do. On the other hand, Germany

6844-495: The United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during the Philippine–American War and other guerrilla uprisings. He was schooled in modern warfare, including tours from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor. He was ranked first of five Honor Graduates of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course (now the United States Army Command and General Staff College ) in 1907 and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College (now

6960-498: The United States in January 1947. As Secretary of State, Marshall disagreed with the Defense and State Department views that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. The war continued, and the Communists won in 1949. After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed him Secretary of State . As one of the most well-regarded and least politicized national leaders, he made an ideal front office personality. He became

7076-420: The United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Colonel Marshall has performed the duties of Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, 1st Division, from 26 June 1917 to 12 July 1918. He served in the G-3 Section, General Headquarters, American Expeditionary Forces, from 13 July 1918 to 19 August 1918, in G-3 section, 1st Army, from 20 August 1918 to 16 October 1918; as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, of

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7192-437: The War Department later on the morning of 7 December 1941 than he initially claimed during testimony and invented a story about a warning to affected army commanders about the imminent Pearl Harbor Attack being delayed because he had been unable to get in touch with Marshall, an allegation which "nearly destroyed" Marshall. Only weeks after Marshall's retirement, in December 1945, President Harry Truman dispatched Marshall to

7308-538: The Western Allied war effort, but the British government ultimately approved. He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for 1 April 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Operation Husky for the invasion of Italy . Marshall and his advisors also opposed the Allied invasion of French North Africa after it became clear that Vichy France would offer resistance, concerns over an Axis intervention through Francoist Spain and Gibraltar , and suspicions that

7424-462: The Year for 1943 and 1947. Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, as required for holders of five-star rank. From 15 December 1945 to January 1947, Marshall served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists of Mao Zedong . As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall advocated rebuilding Europe,

7540-408: The defensive in the Pacific. However, the U.S. reassurance to the UK notwithstanding, the U.S.'s immediate concern was with Japan. As the Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall later said, "we had a fair understanding of what we had best do rather than the necessity of engaging in prolonged conversations... This understanding, which included a recognition that Germany was the main enemy and that

7656-467: The division chief of staff, Marshall angrily interceded to inform Pershing of logistical and administrative difficulties of which Pershing was unaware. Marshall also informed Pershing that the AEF staff had not been very helpful in dealing with the problems. Sibert and his staff were concerned that Marshall's willingness to confront Pershing had probably cost him his career. Instead, Pershing began to seek out Marshall and ask for his advice whenever he visited

7772-422: The division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over; Marshall's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise. A physician bound Marshall's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the attack. In 1920, Marshall was awarded the Citation Star for his heroism during this battle. When

7888-487: The division's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917. On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division's assistant chief of staff for training, Major Lesley J. McNair ; the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers. Marshall was the first passenger from the first boat transporting American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) soldiers to set foot in Europe, and one of

8004-558: The end of its post-World War II demobilization and then its initial buildup for combat in Korea and operations during the Cold War . Resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia . He died in 1959 and was buried with honors at Arlington National Cemetery . George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania , the youngest of three children born to George Catlett Marshall and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall. Both sides of his family were long from Kentucky , but cherished their Virginia roots. He

8120-410: The entry of Japan into the War, our view remains that Germany is still the prime enemy and her defeat is the key to victory. Once Germany is defeated the collapse of Italy and the defeat of Japan must follow." The Europe first strategy, in conjunction with a "holding action" against Japan in the Pacific, had originally been proposed to Roosevelt by the U.S. military in 1940. When Germany declared war on

8236-510: The family name." Determined to "wipe his brother's face," Marshall enrolled at the age of sixteen in December 1897. To pay for his tuition and expenses, Marshall's mother sold parcels of land she owned in Uniontown and Augusta, Kentucky . At the start of his college career, Marshall was subjected to a hazing incident in which upperclassmen positioned an unsheathed bayonet with the point up and directed him to squat over it. After twenty minutes, Marshall fainted and fell. When he awoke, he had

8352-494: The first notable American victory of the war. As he conducted pre-attack planning, Marshall traveled alone under cover of darkness to personally view the terrain and mentally map it. Marshall ventured beyond the front lines and far into no-man's land , often under friendly artillery fire and routinely risking discovery and capture by Imperial German Army troops. On 26 May, he was injured while traveling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination. As he departed

8468-535: The first to enter the trenches of the Western Front . After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the Saint-Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts. Although the division was designated as a Regular Army formation, most of the officers and men serving within its ranks were almost completely lacking in combat experience. They were also deficient "in training, staff work, and logistical problems. More than half of its soldiers were new recruits. Only

8584-616: The focus on defeating Germany first and the establishment of international unified commands in control of all Allied forces in a given theatre. His push for unity of command, in particular through the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command , met with resistance from the British Armed Forces under Alan Brooke because the scheme would allow the United States to dominate

8700-455: The front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers going AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Nazi Germany . As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans

8816-651: The highest credit upon himself and the United States Army. After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delaying sending Lieutenant General Walter Short ,

8932-581: The invasion of Guadalcanal was approved. Roosevelt ultimately overruled Marshall after the British studied the feasibility of a cross-channel invasion and found it to be impossible in 1942. General Mark Clark, commander of all American forces in Britain, corroborated this conclusion later that year, pointing out that only one infantry division (the 34th Infantry Division) was available, but had neither amphibious training, anti-aircraft guns, tanks, nor landing craft. The 1st Armored Division also lacked equipment, as were

9048-526: The major effort would be made initially in Europe, was obviously not applicable in the present situation. Of first importance now was the necessity to check the Japanese." Nonetheless, Marshall and other U.S. generals advocated the invasion of northern Europe in 1943, which the British rejected. After Churchill pressed for a landing in French North Africa in 1942, Marshall suggested instead to Roosevelt that

9164-415: The most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job." Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. He was instrumental in advancing the careers of the highly capable generals such as Dwight D. Eisenhower , Omar Bradley , George S. Patton , Walter Krueger and Mark W. Clark . A notable exception was his recommendation of

9280-647: The most interesting." In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C. , and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a White House conference at which President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a plan to expand the United States Army Air Corps by 15,000 aircraft per year in preparation for World War II. With all other attendees voicing support, Marshall

9396-512: The necessity of turning former civilians into an army of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed McNair as commander of Army Ground Forces to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics. At

9512-501: The new divisions arriving in-theater. The main policy achievements of Arcadia included the decision for "Germany First" (or " Europe first "—that is, the defeat of Germany was the highest priority); the establishment of the Combined Chiefs of Staff , based in Washington, for approving the military decisions of both the US and Britain; the principle of unity of command of each theater under a supreme commander; drawing up measures to keep China in

9628-677: The newly formed state of Israel . Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared, a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did when the 1948 Arab–Israeli War began one day after Israel declared independence ). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain American Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Thomas E. Dewey . He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you [recognize

9744-546: The operation was intended to defend European colonial territory with little strategic value to the war. When rumors circulated that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, many critics viewed the potential transfer as a demotion, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff . While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for

9860-555: The pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started

9976-489: The position. Roosevelt selected Eisenhower, in large part because he did not want to do without Marshall in the Chief of Staff position. He told Marshall, "I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington." On 16 December 1944, Marshall became the first American general to be promoted to the newly created rank of General of the Army , a five-star rank that placed senior American commanders on an equal footing with

10092-599: The predominant member of the Axis with the principal military effort of the United States being exerted in the Atlantic and European area;" and (2) "A strategic defensive in the Far East." Thus, the Americans concurred with the British in the grand strategy of "Europe first" (or "Germany first") in carrying out military operations in World War II. The UK feared that, if the United States was diverted from its main focus in Europe to

10208-600: The report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including to Marshall. A secret review of the Army's role, which resulted in the Clausen Report , was authorized by Secretary Henry Stimson . The report was critical of Short and also of Colonel Rufus S. Bratton of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2), who investigator Henry Clausen concluded arrived at

10324-526: The spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. He did not design the plans and paid little attention to details or negotiations. Nor did he keep current on details of foreign affairs. As one biographer notes, he had never been a workaholic. He turned over major responsibilities to his deputies, especially Under-Secretary Robert A. Lovett , and refused to be troubled by minutiae. By 1948, with frailties building up, his participation

10440-626: The staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, he was a key planner of American operations, including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive . After the war, Marshall became an aide-de-camp to Army Chief of Staff John J. Pershing . Marshall later served on the Army staff, was the executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in China and was an instructor at the Army War College . In 1927, he became assistant commandant of

10556-576: The start, significant differences in strategic priorities appeared. The British sought to push the Axis out of the Mediterranean, securing their lines of communications to their colonies. The American Navy, led by Admiral King, wished to prioritize fighting Japan, while the American Army, led by George C. Marshall, argued in favor of an immediate cross-channel invasion in 1942. Roosevelt, favoring naval strategy,

10672-411: The state of Israel] and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you." However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle. During his tenure as Secretary of State, Marshall also urged Truman to immediately call for The Netherlands to stop their invasion of Indonesia , a former Dutch colony which had declared independence in 1945. The Netherlands ignored

10788-575: The subsequent year, he attempted but failed to avoid the impending continuation of the Chinese Civil War . As Secretary of State, Marshall advocated for a U.S. economic and political commitment to post-war European recovery, including the Marshall Plan that bore his name. In recognition of this work, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953, the only Army general ever to receive the honor. Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania , Marshall graduated from

10904-504: The summer and fall of 1916, Marshall was responsible for organizing several Western Department Citizens' Military Training Camps . After the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall relocated with Bell to Governors Island , New York, when Bell was reassigned as commander of the Department of the East . Shortly afterwards, Marshall was assigned to help oversee the mobilization of

11020-570: The swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face." Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall

11136-405: The table at Brooke. God, he was mad. I wished he had socked him." The American people favored early action against Japan. In one of the few public opinion polls taken during the war, in February 1943, 53% of Americans said that Japan was the "chief enemy" compared to 34% choosing Germany. A later poll showed that 82% of Americans believed that the Japanese were more "cruel at heart" than Germans. As

11252-624: The time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads. In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when they encountered German armored units in Africa in

11368-489: The war he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal , the citation for which reads: The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, 9 July 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Colonel (Infantry) George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (ASN: 0-1616), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of

11484-445: The war's end in 1945. As Chief of Staff, Marshall, working closely with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, and was promoted to five-star rank as General of the Army . Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. In addition to accolades from Winston Churchill and other Allied leaders, Time magazine named Marshall its Man of

11600-586: The war; limiting the reinforcements to be sent to the Pacific; and setting up a system for coordinating shipping. All the decisions were secret, except the conference drafted the Declaration by United Nations , which committed the Allies to make no separate peace with the enemy, and to employ full resources until victory. In immediate tactical terms, the decisions at Arcadia included an invasion of North Africa in 1942, sending American bombers to bases in England, and for

11716-469: Was a clear preponderance of U.S. resources allocated toward the defeat of Germany. Germany was the United Kingdom's primary threat, especially after the Fall of France in 1940, which saw Germany overrun most of the countries of Western Europe, leaving the United Kingdom alone to combat Germany. Germany's threatened invasion of the UK, Operation Sea Lion , was averted by its failure to establish air superiority in

11832-625: Was a key planner in the War Department . He then served as executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in the Republic of China , where he remained for three years and learned to speak basic Mandarin. In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel , he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning , where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II . Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of

11948-473: Was also a first cousin, three times removed, of former Chief Justice John Marshall . He was also a distant cousin of Richard J. Marshall . Marshall's father was active in the coal and coke business. Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been a Democrat and his mother a Republican , whereas he was an Episcopalian . Marshall was educated at Miss Alcinda Thompson's private school in Uniontown and spent

12064-529: Was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and Southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff; he later became the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff . When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall assumed the role of Chief of Staff in an acting capacity before his appointment to the position, which he held until

12180-567: Was an American army officer and statesman. He rose through the United States Army to become Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army under Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman , then served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman. Winston Churchill lauded Marshall as the "organizer of victory" for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II . During

12296-534: Was apprehensive that he would wheedle President Roosevelt into neglecting the war in the Pacific. At the January 1943 Casablanca Conference , King was accused by Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke , Chief of the Imperial General Staff , of favoring the Pacific war, and the argument became heated. The combative US general Joseph Stilwell wrote: "Brooke got nasty, and King got good and sore. King almost climbed over

12412-543: Was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell , the commander of the Western Department . After the nation entered World War I in 1917, Marshall served with Bell, who commanded the Department of the East . He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division ; he assisted with the organization's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France . Subsequently assigned to

12528-534: Was considered the stronger and more dangerous threat to Europe; and Germany's geographical proximity to the UK and the Soviet Union was a much greater threat to their survival. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, American planners foresaw the possibility of a two-front war. Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark authored the Plan Dog memo , which advocated concentrating on victory in Europe while staying on

12644-533: Was further curtailed. Marshall said, "The fact of the matter is that Lovett bears the principal burden as I get away whenever possible." On 5 June 1947, in a speech at Harvard University , he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan . Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called

12760-592: Was in the Pacific: Guadalcanal in August 1942. Concurrently, Australian forces attacked and pushed back the Japanese in the Kokoda Track Campaign in New Guinea. Three U.S. Army divisions were deployed to Australia and New Zealand in February and March 1942 at the request of Churchill so that divisions from those countries could remain on operations in the Middle East. Through this sizeable deployment to

12876-532: Was more supportive of New Deal liberalism than the conservative Douglas MacArthur , and because of the recommendations of Pershing, Craig, Louis A. Johnson , and most importantly Roosevelt's close advisor Harry Hopkins . Marshall was sworn in as chief of staff on 1 September 1939, just hours after the Wehrmacht launched its invasion of Poland . He held this post until retiring in November 1945. On 11 May 1940,

12992-455: Was not well received by factions of the US military, driving a wedge between the Navy and the Army. While USN Fleet Admiral Ernest King was a strong believer in "Europe First", contrary to British perceptions, his natural aggression did not permit him to leave resources idle in the Atlantic that could be utilized in the Pacific, especially when "it was doubtful when—if ever—the British would consent to

13108-526: Was persuaded by Churchill to prioritize the Mediterranean, and even suggested to the Soviet Ambassador Litvinoff that a landing in North Africa might enable attacking German-occupied Europe from the south. Marshall, however, insisted upon a cross-channel invasion and suggested withdrawing from the liberation of Europe if the British did not agree to his plan. On Churchill's last day in Washington,

13224-407: Was severely exhausted throughout his tenure in the position. Dean Acheson in late 1947 said he was underperforming like "a four-engine bomber going only on one engine." Truman named him to the largely honorific positions of chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross . He received the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work, despite

13340-485: Was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass . During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of Continental Europe . Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. During the Arcadia Conference , he convinced the United Kingdom to accept this strategy, including

13456-504: Was the only one to disagree, pointing out the lack of consideration for logistical support or training. Marshall also spoke in favor of a large ground army although Roosevelt had said a large air force would be a greater deterrent to enemies, pointing out that the United States Army did not yet have a single division at full operational strength. Despite others' belief then that Marshall had ended his career, his willingness to express disagreement resulted in Roosevelt nominating Marshall to be

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