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65-537: The Estufa is modeled after a kiva , a ceremonial meeting place used by the Pueblo people . It has thick adobe walls and contains a single windowless room with seating around the edges. Construction of the building was guided by university president William G. Tight , who promoted the use of Pueblo Revival architecture on campus. The Estufa was one of the first buildings in New Mexico to employ this style. An estufa [Sp.,

130-479: A division of Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture. The Hopi , Zuni , Keres and Jemez each have matrilineal kinship systems: children are considered born into their mother's clan and must marry a spouse outside it, an exogamous practice. They maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation story tells that humans emerged from the underground. They emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in

195-515: A feature from earlier times called a sipapu , which is a hole dug in the north of the chamber that is thought to represent the Ancestral Puebloans' place of emergence from the underworld. When designating an ancient room as a kiva , archaeologists make assumptions about the room's original functions and how those functions may be similar to or differ from kivas used in modern practice. The kachina belief system appears to have emerged in

260-456: A form of prayer, and strict rules of conduct apply to those who wish to attend one (e.g. no clapping or walking across the dance area or between the dancers, singers, or drummers). Since time immemorial, Pueblo communities have celebrated seasonal cycles through prayer, song, and dance. These dances connect us to our ancestors, community, and traditions while honoring gifts from our Creator. They ensure that life continues and that connections to

325-629: A major archaeological dig in the 1990s in the Tucson Basin , along the Santa Cruz River , identified a culture and people that were ancestors of the Hohokam who might have occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals from the beginning of

390-553: A more conventional door. The interior of the Estufa contains a single windowless room, approximately 500 square feet (46 m) in area, which has been described as a pit with seating around the edge. Despite the prevalence of Pueblo style architecture at UNM, the Estufa is one of only two buildings on campus actually made out of adobe. The other is the Naval Science Building designed by John Gaw Meem . Kiva A kiva

455-585: A stove, a warm room. Cf. Stove] is an assembly room in a dwelling of the Pueblo Indians (i.e. a kiva), per Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 1998. The Estufa was built in 1907–08 by the local social fraternity Alpha Alpha Alpha, previously known as the Yum Yum Society. The project received support from university president William G. Tight , who was interested in strengthening the Greek system on campus. At

520-420: A unique name in each of the different languages spoken in the area. The names used by each Pueblo to refer to their village ( endonyms ) usually differ from those given to them by outsiders (their exonyms ), including by speakers of other Puebloan languages. Centuries of trade and intermarriages between the groups are reflected in the names given to the same Pueblo in each of the languages. The table below contains

585-624: A vast outlying region hundreds of miles away linked by transportation roadways. By about 700 to 900 CE, the Puebloans began to move away from ancient pit houses dug in cliffs and to construct connected rectangular rooms arranged in apartment-like structures made of adobe and adapted to sites. By 1050, they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms. These apartment-house villages were often constructed on defensive sites: on ledges of massive rock, on flat summits, or on steep-sided mesas, locations that would afford

650-402: Is a large exterior staircase, which ascends to the roof, from which, through a trap-door, steps lead down into the interior. Inside is a large fire place, of true Indian design, while the rafters and timbers above add to the effect. The whole is coated with cement, and makes an admirable imitation of the real estufa. The Tri-Alphas held their first meeting in the Estufa on February 20, 1908, while

715-477: Is a space used by Puebloans for rites and political meetings, many of them associated with the kachina belief system. Among the modern Hopi and most other Pueblo peoples, "kiva" means a large room that is circular and underground, and used for spiritual ceremonies and a place of worship . Similar subterranean rooms are found among ruins in the Southwestern United States , indicating uses by

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780-530: Is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during a climatic period when precipitation was relatively high. The various Pueblo communities have different traditions regarding the making and decoration of pottery artifacts. Present-day archaeologists date the use of pottery by Puebloans dating back the early centuries of the Common Era. In Native communities of the Southwest's belief system,

845-507: Is known for the stone and earth dwellings its people built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras, from about 900 to 1350 CE in total. The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are now protected within United States' national parks , such as Navajo National Monument , Chaco Culture National Historical Park , Mesa Verde National Park , Canyons of

910-549: Is laborious and time-consuming, every-day style of dress for working around the villages has been sparer. The men often wore breechcloths. Corn is the most readily recognizable staple food for Pueblo peoples. Although it is possible that different groups may have grown local plants such as gourds and chenopods at very early dates, the first evidence of maize cultivation in the Southwest dates from about 2100 BCE. Small, fairly undomesticated maize cobs have been found at five different sites in New Mexico and Arizona. Maize reached

975-572: Is not found in Chaco-style kivas. Great kivas also tend to include floor vaults, which might have served as foot drums for ceremonial dancers, but Chaco-style kivas do not. Great kivas are believed to be the first public buildings constructed in the Mesa Verde region . Puebloans The Puebloans , or Pueblo peoples , are Native Americans in the Southwestern United States who share common agricultural, material, and religious practices. Among

1040-578: The Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde regions of the Four Corners area. Archeological evidence suggests that people partaking in the Mogollon culture /moʊɡəˈjoʊn/ were initially foragers who augmented their subsistence through the development of farming. Around the first millennium CE farming became the main means to obtain food. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites which date from

1105-629: The Coronado Expedition in 1540–41, which temporarily halted Spanish advances in present-day New Mexico. The 17th century's revolt was a direct consequence of growing discontent among the Northern Pueblos against the abuses by the Spaniards, which finally brewed into a large organized uprising against European colonizers. The events that led to the Pueblo Revolt go back at least a decade before

1170-615: The National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The Estufa is an elliptical, one-story building loosely modeled after a kiva at Santo Domingo Pueblo . As such, it was one of the earliest expressions of the Pueblo Revival style in New Mexico, and is the oldest surviving example at UNM. The walls are adobe and are approximately 14 inches (36 cm) thick. The building was originally accessed via an external staircase and roof trapdoor, but this arrangement has since been replaced by

1235-580: The ancestral Puebloans . The term Anasazi is sometimes used to refer to ancestral Pueblo people, but it is now largely avoided. Anasazi is a Navajo word that means Ancient Ones or Ancient Enemy , hence Pueblo peoples' rejection of it (see exonym ). Pueblo is a Spanish term for "village". When Spanish conquest of the Americas began in the 16th-century with the founding of Nuevo México , they came across complex, multistory villages built of adobe , stone and other local materials. New Mexico contains

1300-505: The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of religious stories explore the relationships among people and nature, including plants and animals. Spider Grandmother and kachina spirits figure prominently in some myths. Puebloan peoples in the 16th century believed in Katsina spirits. Katsinas are supernatural beings who are representatives of Pueblo ancestors. They live for half

1365-520: The 10th through 12th centuries CE. The nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time; the earliest Mogollon villages were small hamlets composed of several pithouses , houses excavated into the ground surface with a stick and thatch roofs supported by a network of posts and beams, and faced on the exterior with earth. Village sizes increased over time so that by the 11th century CE villages composed of ground level dwellings of rock and earth walls and wooden beam-supported roofs were

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1430-491: The 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth. Most of the Pueblos hold annual sacred ceremonies, some of which are now open to the public. Religious ceremonies usually feature traditional dances that are held outdoors in the large common areas and courtyards, which are accompanied by singing and drumming. Unlike kiva ceremonies, traditional dances may be open to non-Puebloans. Traditional dances are considered

1495-452: The 21st century, some 75,000 Pueblo people live predominantly in New Mexico and Arizona, but also in Texas and elsewhere. Despite various similarities in cultural and religious practices, scholars have proposed divisions of contemporary Pueblos into smaller groups based on linguistic and individual manifestations of the broader Puebloan culture. The clearest division between Puebloans relates to

1560-631: The Ancients National Monument , Aztec Ruins National Monument , Bandelier National Monument , Hovenweep National Monument , and Canyon de Chelly National Monument . These villages were accessible only by rope or through rock climbing. However, the first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in the Basketmaker periods. Villages consisted of apartment-like complexes and structures made from stone, adobe mud, and other local materials, or were carved into

1625-586: The Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to release the prisoners. Among those released was an Ohkay Owingeh Tewa man named Popé . After being released, Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo villages. He was able to gain the support of the Northern Tiwa , Tewa , Towa , Tano , and Keres -speaking Pueblos of

1690-619: The Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. The statue was the second commissioned by the state of New Mexico for the National Statuary Hall Collection ; it was the 100th and last to be added to the collection. It was created by Cliff Fragua , a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico . It is the only statue in the collection to be created by a Native American. In 1844 Josiah Gregg described

1755-518: The Puebloans protection from raiding parties originating from the north, such as the Comanche and Navajo . The largest of these villages, Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon , New Mexico, contained around 700 rooms in five stories; it may have housed as many as 1000 persons. Pueblo buildings are constructed as complex apartments with numerous rooms, often built in strategic defensive positions. The most highly developed were large villages or pueblos situated at

1820-410: The Pueblos sent a knotted rope carried by a runner to the next Pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. Finally, on 21 August, 2,500 Puebloan warriors took the colony's capital Santa Fe from Spanish control, killing many colonizers, the remainder of whom were successfully expelled. On 22 September 2005, the statue of Po'pay ( Popé ), the leader of

1885-654: The Rio Grande Valley. The Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did the Zuni and Hopi , 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. At the time, the Spanish population was of about 2,400 colonists, including mixed-blood mestizos , and Indian servants and retainers, who were scattered thinly throughout the region. Starting early on 10 August 1680, Popé and leaders of each of

1950-807: The South-West around A.D. 1250, while kiva-like structures occurred much earlier. This suggests that the room's older functions may have been changed or adapted to suit the new religious practice. As cultural changes occurred, particularly during the Pueblo III period between 1150 and 1300, kivas continued to have a prominent place in the community. However, some kivas were built above ground. Kiva architecture became more elaborate, with tower kivas and great kivas incorporating specialized floor features. For example, kivas found in Mesa Verde National Park were generally keyhole-shaped. In most larger communities, it

2015-598: The ancient peoples of the region including the ancestral Puebloans , the Mogollon , and the Hohokam . Those used by the ancient Pueblos of the Pueblo I Period and following, designated by the Pecos Classification system developed by archaeologists, were usually round and evolved from simpler pit-houses . For the Ancestral Puebloans, these rooms are believed to have had a variety of functions, including domestic residence along with social and ceremonial purposes. During

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2080-469: The building was set on fire four times. It was also damaged by an accidental gas explosion in 1958 that left five people injured. In the 1960s, the building seemed doomed by a University Boulevard widening project, but city planners ultimately chose a road alignment further to the west that kept the Estufa out of harm's way. It was added to the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties and

2145-473: The building was still unfinished. In 1915, Alpha Alpha Alpha became the Beta Delta chapter of Pi Kappa Alpha , the university's first national fraternity, and the Estufa has continued to serve as the chapter's primary meeting location for nearly 100 years. During its long history as a fraternity council room, the Estufa has been involved in numerous pranks and has been broken into or vandalized many times, often by

2210-747: The common era to about the middle of the 15th century. Within a larger context, the Hohokam culture area inhabited a central trade position between the Patayan situated along with the Lower Colorado River and in southern California; the Trincheras of Sonora , Mexico; the Mogollon culture in eastern Arizona, southwest New Mexico, and northwest Chihuahua , Mexico; and the Ancestral Puebloans in northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, southwest Colorado, and southern Utah . The Ancestral Puebloan culture

2275-490: The currently inhabited Pueblos , Taos , San Ildefonso , Acoma , Zuni , and Hopi are some of the most commonly known. Pueblo people speak languages from four different language families , and each Pueblo is further divided culturally by kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn (maize). Pueblo peoples have lived in the American Southwest for millennia and descend from

2340-557: The emergence of people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west. Their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. Puebloan societies contain elements of three major cultures that dominated the Southwest United States region before European contact: the Mogollon culture , whose adherents occupied an area near Gila Wilderness ; the Hohokam culture ; and the Ancestral Pueblo culture who occupied

2405-664: The entire Rio Grande Pueblo area. The Spaniards had learned from the Pueblo Revolt and were gentler in their demands in the next century and a half. However, the Pueblos had learned as well and maintained their ceremonial life out of the view of the Spaniards, while adopting a veneer of Roman Catholicism. The public observances may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions on the Pueblo's feast day. Some Pueblos also hold sacred ceremonies around Christmas and at other Christian holidays. Although most present-day pueblos are known by their Spanish or anglicized Spanish name, each Pueblo has

2470-519: The formal uprising began. In the 1670s, severe drought swept the region, which caused both a famine among the Pueblo and increased the frequency of raids by the Apache . Neither Spanish nor Pueblo soldiers were able to prevent the attacks by the Apache raiding parties. The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675, when Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo medicine men and accused them of practicing sorcery . Four of

2535-478: The historic Pueblo people in The journal of a Santa Fé trader as follows: When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found in

2600-530: The languages they speak. Pueblo peoples speak languages from four distinct language families , which means these languages are completely different in vocabulary , grammar , and most other linguistic aspects. As a result, each Pueblo language is not easily understood by speakers of the other languages, with English now working as the lingua franca of the region. Anthropologists have studied Pueblo peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions. In 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted

2665-697: The largest number of federally recognized Pueblo communities, though some Pueblo communities also live in Arizona and Texas and along the Rio Grande and Colorado rivers and their tributaries . Pueblo nations have maintained much of their traditional cultures, which center around agricultural practices, a tight-knit community revolving around family clans, and respect for tradition. Puebloans have been remarkably adept at preserving their culture and core religious beliefs, including developing syncretic Pueblo Christianity. Exact numbers of Pueblo peoples are unknown but, in

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2730-412: The late 8th century, Mesa Verdeans started building square pit structures that archeologists call protokivas. They were typically 3 or 4 feet (90 or 120 cm) deep and 12 to 20 feet (4 to 6 m) in diameter. By the mid-10th and early 11th centuries, these had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas, which were usually 12 to 15 feet (4 to 5 m) across. Mesa Verde-style kivas included

2795-486: The markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarreling or dissipation ... The Puebloans are traditional weavers of cloth and have used textiles, natural fibers , and animal hide in their cloth-making. Since woven clothing

2860-410: The medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When the news of the killings and public humiliation reached Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe , where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting

2925-494: The names of the New Mexican pueblos and Hopi using the official or practical orthographies of the languages. Despite not being a Puebloan language, Navajo names are also included due to prolonged contact between them and the several Pueblos. With the exception of Zuni, all Puebloan languages, as well as Navajo, are tonal . However, the tone is not usually shown in the spelling of these languages save for Navajo, Towa, and Tewa. In

2990-421: The norm. Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries. Hohokam is a term borrowed from the O'odham language , used to define an archaeological culture that relied on irrigation canals to water their crops since as early as the 9th century CE. Their irrigation system techniques allowed for its adherents to expand into the largest population in the Southwest by 1300. Archaeologists working at

3055-485: The north. Four and seven are numbers considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan -speaking Puebloans (other than Jemez) have a patrilineal kinship system, with children considered born into their father's clan. They practice endogamy , or marriage within the clan. They have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism . Their creation story recounts

3120-498: The past and future are reinforced. Traditionally, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal afterward in a Pueblo home. Because of the numerous outside tourists who have attended these dances in the pueblos since the late 20th century, such meals are now open to outsiders by personal invitation only. Private sacred ceremonies are conducted inside the kivas and only tribal members may participate according to specific rules pertaining to each Pueblo's religion. One of

3185-415: The people's existing traditional ceremonies. About the imposition of Christianity, Alfonso Ortiz , an Ohkay Owingeh anthropologist and Pueblo specialist states: The Spanish government demanded labor and tribute from the Pueblos and vigorously attempted to suppress native religion. (...) In that year [1692] Diego de Vargas re-entered Pueblo territory, though it was not until 1696 that he gained control over

3250-510: The peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuni and Hopi specialize in dry farming , compared to the irrigation farmers of the Eastern or River Pueblos. Both groups cultivate mostly corn (maize), but squash and beans have also been staple Pueblo foods all around the region. In 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published

3315-456: The plaza. ... Four massive pillars of alternating masonry and horizontal poles held up the ceiling beams, which in turn supported an estimated 95-ton roof. Each pillar rested on four shaped-stone disks, weighing about 355 pounds [160 kg] apiece. These discs are of limestone, which came from mountains at least 40 mi (60 km) away. After 1325 or 1350, except in the Hopi and Pueblo region,

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3380-461: The present-day Southwest via an unknown route from Mesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of a Uto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group rather than by migrants. There

3445-574: The primary goals of Spanish colonists in the 17th century was to convert the Natives in New Spain to Christianity. Franciscan priests had prepared for a long process of conversion, building churches and missions all around Pueblo country. Some of the Pueblos' feast days are a product of that process. Feast days are held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint , assigned by Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with one of

3510-453: The ratio changed from 60 to 90 rooms for each kiva. This may indicate a religious or organizational change within the society, perhaps affecting the status and number of clans among the Pueblo people. Great kivas differ from regular kivas, which archeologists call Chaco-style kivas (although Chaco Canyon also features great kivas), in several ways; first and foremost, great kivas are always much larger and deeper than Chaco-style kivas. Whereas

3575-399: The rival Sigma Chi fraternity. The building is accessible only to members of Pi Kappa Alpha, and according to fraternity lore no woman has ever seen its interior. The Estufa has survived both accidental and intentional vehicular collisions as well as "attempts to destroy it with fire, dynamite, water and other weapons" according to an Albuquerque Journal article from 1952. In 1947 alone,

3640-504: The same time, Tight had been working to promote Pueblo Revival architecture at the university and had already overseen construction of two new dormitories and a boiler plant in the Pueblo style. Under this influence, the Tri-Alphas built their meeting room in the form of a kiva or "estufa," a traditional feature of Pueblo architecture. Ground was broken on the project in January 1907, though

3705-452: The sides of canyon walls. Design details from Ancestral Puebloan villages contain elements from cultures as far away as present-day Mexico. In their day, these ancient towns and cities were usually multistoried and multi-purposed buildings surrounding open plazas and viewsheds . They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Ancestral Pueblo peoples. These population complexes hosted cultural and civic events and infrastructure that supported

3770-586: The table above, a low tone is left unmarked in the orthography. Vowel nasalisation is shown by an ogonek diacritic below the vowel; ejective consonants are transcribed with an apostrophe following the consonant. Vowel length is shown either by doubling of the character or, in Zuni, by adding a colon. Pre-contact population size of the Puebloans was possibly as high as up to 313,000 people spread across at least 110 towns (pueblos), according to authors and sources such as Antonio de Espejo , Alonso de Benavides , Relacion del Suceso and Agustín de Vetancurt . By

3835-475: The town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. After the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering one town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance. The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations. By

3900-556: The very top of the mesas , the rocky tablelands typical to the Southwest. Before 1598, Spanish exploration of the present-day Pueblo areas was limited to several transitory groups. A group of colonizers led by Juan de Oñate arrived at the end of the 16th century as part of an apostolic mission to convert the Natives. Despite initial peaceful contact, Spain's attempts to dispose of the Pueblo religion and replace it with Catholicism became increasingly more aggressive, and were met with great resistance by Puebloans, whose governmental structure

3965-403: The walls of great kivas always extend above the surrounding landscape, the walls of Chaco-style kivas do not, but are instead flush with the surrounding landscape. Chaco-style kivas are often found incorporated into the central room blocks of great houses, but great kivas are always separate from core structures. Great kivas almost always have a bench that encircles the inner space, but this feature

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4030-594: The work evidently proceeded slowly and it was not finished until April 1908. The U.N.M. Weekly student newspaper reported that month that The most unique fraternity house in the world has just been completed on the campus of the University. It is modeled after the Indian fashion, and is in fact, an almost exact counterpart of the San Domingo estufas. The house consists of one large elliptical room, with no windows. The entrance

4095-420: The year in the underworld with the gods and spend the rest of the year with their descendants on earth. Katsinas have the power to take the form of clouds and bring rain for agricultural fields. They heal disease and also cause disease. Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize – white cornmeal . A man might bless his son, or some land, or

4160-443: Was based around the figure of the cacique , a theocratic leader for both material and spiritual matters. Over the years, Spaniards' methods grew harsher, leading to a series of revolts by the Puebloans. The Pueblo Revolt that started in 1680 was the first led by a Native American group to successfully expel colonists from North America for a considerable number of years. It followed the successful Tiguex War led by Tiwas against

4225-403: Was normal to find one kiva for each five or six rooms. Kiva destruction, primarily by burning, has been seen as a strong archaeological indicator of conflict and warfare among people of the South-West during this period. Fifteen top rooms encircle the central chamber of the vast Great Kiva at Aztec Ruins National Monument . The rooms' ... purpose is unclear. ... Each had an exterior doorway to

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