Esau is the elder son of Isaac in the Hebrew Bible . He is mentioned in the Book of Genesis and by the prophets Obadiah and Malachi . The Christian New Testament alludes to him in the Epistle to the Romans and in the Epistle to the Hebrews .
161-569: According to the Hebrew Bible, Esau is the progenitor of the Edomites and the elder brother of Jacob , the patriarch of the Israelites. Jacob and Esau were the sons of Isaac and Rebecca , and the grandsons of Abraham and Sarah . Of the twins, Esau was the first to be born with Jacob following, holding his heel. Isaac was sixty years old when the boys were born. Esau, a "man of the field", became
322-478: A hunter who had "rough" qualities that distinguished him from his twin brother. Among these qualities were his redness and noticeable hairiness. Jacob was a plain or simple man, depending on the translation of the Hebrew word tam (which also means "relatively perfect man"). Jacob's color was not mentioned. Throughout Genesis, Esau is frequently shown as being supplanted by his younger twin, Jacob (Israel). According to
483-624: A vassal of Israel. David placed over the Edomites Israelite governors or prefects, and this form of government seems to have continued under Solomon . When Israel divided into two kingdoms Edom became a dependency of the Kingdom of Judah . In the time of Jehoshaphat (c. 870 – 849 BC) the Tanakh mentions a king of Edom who was probably an Israelite deputy appointed by the King of Judah . It also states that
644-585: A Seleucid general named Gorgias as "Governor of Idumaea"; whether he was a Greek or a Hellenized Idumean is unknown. Some scholars maintain that the reference to Idumaea in that passage is an error altogether. According to Josephus , the Judeans under Judas Maccabeus first defeated the Idumaeans in the two Idumaean border towns of Hebron and Marisa and plundered them around 163 BC. About 50 years later, Judeans under John Hyrcanus I again attacked Marisa and
805-511: A battle against the Turks in the year prior, motivating the abandonment, whereas another states that the Mongols themselves caused the damage during the abandonment. The Mongols are also variously stated to either have simply walled up the gates but otherwise left what remained intact or to have pillaged the city for building materials before burning down the remnants. One major reason for the abandonment
966-682: A dark green cloth and a canopy above. An ostrich egg is hung near. North of the chamber is a vaulted room of equal size, and to the east is an open court with a fig-tree, and a second cenotaph rudely plastered, said to be that of Esau's slave. Rock-cut tombs exist south-west of this place. The SWP stated this identification was false and that Esau's tomb was in the Biblical Mount Seir . Edomites Edom ( / ˈ iː d ə m / ; Edomite : 𐤀𐤃𐤌 ʾDM ; Hebrew : אֱדוֹם ʾĔḏōm , lit.: "red"; Akkadian : 𒌑𒁺𒈪 Údumi , 𒌑𒁺𒈬 Údumu ; Ancient Egyptian : jdwmꜥ )
1127-530: A different name from his ancient consort Ningal ), the "lord with his dogs" (identified as a localised version of the god Nergal ), Tar'atha (identified with the Syrian goddess Atargatis ), Gadlat (an Arabian goddess), and perhaps Shamash. Though Sin had in the past been the only major deity in Harran, he was by this point only the most important of several different ancient gods. The pagans of Harran became an issue in
1288-562: A distant land, Paddan-aram (towards Harran ) to work for his uncle Laban ( Genesis 28:5 ). Jacob does not immediately receive his father's inheritance after the impersonation aimed at taking it from Esau. Having fled for his life, Jacob has left the wealth of Isaac's flocks, land and tents in Esau's hands. Jacob is forced to sleep out on the open ground and then work for wages as a servant in Laban's household. Jacob, who had deceived and cheated his brother,
1449-528: A few years as a major urban center. Mongol control of Harran was immediately contested by the Sultanate of Rum and the Mamluk Sultanate . The Mongols decided to abandon Harran in 1271, deporting the population to the nearby cities of Mardin and Mosul . Accounts differ concerning the reason for the abandonment and the state in which the city was left. One account states that the city had been damaged in
1610-530: A kingdom ("Edom") in the southern area of modern-day Jordan and later migrated into the southern parts of the Kingdom of Judah ("Idumea", modern-day Mount Hebron ) when Judah was first weakened and then destroyed by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC. The Hebrew word Edom means "red", and the Hebrew Bible relates it to the name of its founder Esau , the elder son of the Hebrew patriarch Isaac , because he
1771-661: A long siege lasting from the winter of 610 BC to early 609 BC, Harran was captured by the Babylonians and Medes, ending the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Ekhulkhul was destroyed by the Medes at this time and was neglected for many years but was eventually restored by the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus ( r. 556–539 BC), who was from Harran. The city itself was also significantly revitalised in Nabonidus's reign. After
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#17328518148281932-470: A minority of contemporary Jews argued Herod could not be Jewish because of his genealogical origins. These beliefs were promoted by works such as Jubilees and 4QMMT , which were of Essene , Hasidean or Sadducee origin. These Jews did not openly express their views because Herod violently suppressed critics. Evie Gassner believed the sages disparaged Herod because he supported the Sadducees, who opposed
2093-452: A negative view of Esau because of his rivalry with Jacob and likewise viewed the apparent reconciliation between the brothers described in Genesis 32–33 as insincere on Esau's part. The midrash says that during Rebecca's pregnancy, whenever she would pass a house of Torah study, Jacob would struggle to come out; whenever she would pass a house of idolatry , Esau would agitate to come out. He
2254-695: A peace treaty was sealed in the Ekhulkhul between Mari and the Yaminites , an Amorite tribe. Further treaties signed that invoke Sin of Harran include a 14th-century BC treaty between Šuppiluliuma I of the Hittites and Shattiwaza of Mitanni , and an 8th-century BC treaty between the Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V and Mati'ilu of Arpad . Harran grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. In addition to its religious importance, Harran
2415-530: A population of 96,072. The Harran district ranks 857th among 872 districts in Turkey, and last among the districts of the Şanlıurfa Province , by socioeconomic development. As of 2009, Harran has a low unemployment rate (2.73%; 753rd among all districts), a low literacy rate (55.16%; 865th among all districts) and a high population increase rate (64.23%; 7th among all districts). Harran's possibilities for development are subject to several limiting factors, including
2576-733: A provincial capital often second in importance only to the Assyrian capital of Assur itself. During the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Harran briefly served as the final capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (612–609 BC). The city continued to be prominent after the fall of Assyria and experienced varying degrees of foreign cultural influence during its time under the Neo-Babylonian (609–539 BC), Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. During classical antiquity Harran
2737-692: A rage over the death of Abraham, Esau committed five sins; he raped a betrothed young woman, he committed murder ( Nimrod ), he denied God, he denied the resurrection of the dead, and he spurned his birthright. Haman 's lineage is given in the Targum Sheni as follows: "Haman the son of Hammedatha the Agagite, son of Srach, son of Buza, son of Iphlotas, son of Dyosef, son of Dyosim, son of Prome, son of Ma'dei, son of Bla'akan, son of Intimros, son of Haridom, son of Sh'gar, son of Nigar, son of Farmashta, son of Vayezatha, (son of Agag, son of Sumkei,) son of Amalek , son of
2898-639: A result, Jacob became the spiritual leader of the family after Isaac's death and the heir of the promises of Abraham ( Genesis 27:37 ). When Esau learns of his brother's thievery, he is livid and begs his father to undo the blessing. Isaac responds to his eldest son's plea by saying that he only had one blessing to give and that he could not reverse the sacred blessing. Esau is furious and vows to kill Jacob ( Genesis 27:41 ). Once again Rebekah intervenes to save her younger son from being murdered by his elder twin brother, Esau. Therefore, at Rebekah's urging, Jacob flees to
3059-507: A result, historians have toned down the Hasmonean history of Idumaea as recounted by Josephus in several ways: (a) Traditional account: Some historians still maintain that the events happened largely as Josephus describes. (b) Moderated Conquest: This view was first moderated by the assumption that only Maresha and Adoraim, located on Idumaea's northern border, were actually conquered, while other Idumeans voluntarily aligned themselves with
3220-757: A savory food, that I may eat, and bless thee before the Lord before my death. ' " Rebekah then instructs Jacob in an elaborate deception through which Jacob pretends to be Esau, in order to steal from Esau his blessing from Isaac and his inheritance—which in theory Esau had already agreed to give to Jacob. Jacob follows through with the plan to steal his brother's birthright by bringing the meal his father Isaac requested and pretending to be Esau. Jacob pulled off his disguise by covering himself in hairy kid goat skin so that when his blind father went to touch him, his smooth skin did not give him away as an imposter of his hairy brother. Jacob successfully received his father Isaac's blessing. As
3381-439: A state when it was conquered by Nabonidus in the 6th century BC. Edom is mentioned in Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions in the form 𒌑𒁺𒈪 Údumi and 𒌑𒁺𒈬 Údumu ; three of its kings are known from the same source: Kaus-malaka at the time of Tiglath-pileser III (c. 745 BC), Aya-ramu at the time of Sennacherib (c. 705 BC), and Kaus-gabri at the time of Esarhaddon (c. 680 BC). According to
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#17328518148283542-544: A temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. One of the major semi-nomadic tribes that have continuously lived in and around Harran since the Middle Ages and still today are the Nmēr , descendants of the medieval Numayrid lords of the city. By the 1840s, Harran had once more become a semi-permanent village settlement, although the inhabitants spent the summer months encamped outside the village to avoid vermin in their houses. By
3703-455: A usurper proclaimed king by the Oracle of Nusku from Harran, managed to rally widespread support in the empire before he was defeated. The reign of Esarhaddon in particular marked the rise of the Ekhulkhul into one of the most prominent religious sanctuaries in the ancient Near East , a position it would retain for centuries. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was defeated in the late seventh century BC by
3864-503: Is aluf , used solely to describe the dukes of Edom and Moab , in the Torah . However beginning in the books of the later prophets the word is used to describe Judean generals, for example, in the prophecies of Zachariah twice (9:7, 12:5–6) it had evolved to describe Jewish captains, the word also is used multiple times as a general term for teacher or guide for example in Psalm 55:13. Aluph as it
4025-759: Is a similar god to Yahweh . Qaus seems to have descended from a cultural heritage common between Edomites and Jews, with the worship of both the Edomite Qaus and the God of the Israelites being described by Egyptians. Qaus's popularity during the Persian and Hellenistic periods appears, according to Tebes, to have forced the purportedly pro-Yahwist authors of the Book of Chronicles to portray several Edomite persons as 'pious Levites '. Clues about their Edomite heritage appear to be hidden in their theophoric names. Josephus states that Costobarus
4186-508: Is also buried in the cave. Jewish sources state that Esau sold his right to be buried in the cave. According to Shemot Rabbah , Jacob gave all his possessions to acquire a tomb in the Cave of the Patriarchs . He put a large pile of gold and silver before Esau and asked, "My brother, do you prefer your portion of this cave, or all this gold and silver?" Esau's selling to Jacob his right to be buried in
4347-500: Is considered to be a rebellious son who kept a double life until he was fifteen when he sold his birthright to Jacob. According to the Talmud, the sale of the birthright took place immediately after Abraham died. The Talmudic dating would give both Esau and Jacob an age of fifteen at the time. The lentils Jacob was cooking were meant for his father Isaac because lentils are the traditional mourner's meal for Jews. On that day before returning, in
4508-463: Is curiously stated to have consulted the female moon deity Luna . The oracles warned the emperor of impending disaster but Julian proceeded anyway and was killed in the war. Harran was the only city in the Roman Empire to declare citywide mourning after Julian's death. Later sources indicate that the deities worshipped by the pagans of Harran in late antiquity included Sin, Bat-Nikkal (consort of Sin;
4669-508: Is expected to in the future once more transform Harran into an important local center. Economic issues caused by the Syrian civil war across the nearby Syrian border has recently caused many Harranian families to migrate elsewhere for work, such as to the cities Urfa (ancient Edessa), Adıyaman and Gaziantep . The Harran Castle is a large brick fortress of unknown date, though ancient Greek inscriptions found at one of its gates suggest that it
4830-458: Is higher up the water table than Harran and as more wells were constructed in Edessa, those in Harran gradually dried up. Harran was in the 12th century still renowned for its ancient origins; a now lost work by Hammad al-Harrani made the claim that Harran had been the first city founded after the great flood . Despite the threat of water scarcity , Harran continued to be an important town under
4991-443: Is in turn deceived and cheated by his uncle. Jacob asks to marry Laban's daughter Rachel, whom he has met at the well, and Laban agrees, if Jacob will give him seven years of service. Jacob does so, but after the wedding finds that beneath the veil is not Rachel but Leah, Laban's elder daughter. He agrees to work another seven years and Jacob and Rachel are finally wed. However, despite Laban, Jacob eventually becomes so rich as to incite
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5152-448: Is invoked in the blessing formula in letters and appear in personal names found in ancient Edom. As close relatives of other Levantine Semites and Arabs , they seem to have worshiped such gods as El , Baal and 'Uzza . In some Jewish tradition stemming from the Talmud, the descendants of Esau are the Romans (and to a larger extent, all Europeans). Juan Manuel Tebes argues that Qaus
5313-431: Is its ancient burial mound , spread over a large area and partially surviving intact at the center of the city's archaeological site. The burial mound preserves inscriptions and architectural elements from several different cultures and appears to have been in continuous use from the 3rd century BC to the 13th century AD. The burial mound may be older than Harran itself since ceramic dated to c. 5000 BC has been found at
5474-493: Is located in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa. Harran is situated 360 metres (1,180 feet) above sea level, which is the lowest point in the surrounding lowland region. Harran has a hot and dry climate. The precipitation rate is rarely more than 40 centimetres. During the summer, Harran experiences significant temperature differences between
5635-534: Is not seen elsewhere in Turkey and is rare in the rest of the world. Houses similar to the modern beehive houses have long been present in Harran; the earliest known buildings from Harran appear to have been circular and Assyrian reliefs from the 7th century BC depict domed buildings architecturally similar to the present beehive houses. They have not been consistently present on the site, instead being built, ruined, forgotten and rebuilt multiple times throughout Harran's history. Beehive houses were recorded at Harran by
5796-482: Is noted that the walls of Harran were in poor condition. This issue was not rectified until repairs conducted in the reign of Justinian I ( r. 527–565 ). From the time of the Christianization of Mesopotamia and Syria until long into the Middle Ages, Harran developed a rivalry with the nearby city of Edessa due to the cities having polarised attitudes concerning Christianity. Whereas Edessa adopted
5957-413: Is recorded to have launched an expedition to conquer the region around Harran and secure the trade routes there from hostile forces. After the fall of Shamshi-Adad I 's kingdom in the early 18th century BC, Harran was an independent city-state for a time; archives from Mari from the time of Zimri-Lim ( r. 1775–1761 ) record that Harran in his time was ruled by a king named Asdi-Takim . Harran
6118-428: Is regarded as evidence of a strong, centralized 10th century BC Edomite kingdom. Harran Harran is a municipality and district of Şanlıurfa Province , Turkey . Its area is 904 km , and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa and 20 kilometres (12 miles) from the Syrian border crossing at Akçakale . Harran was founded at some point between
6279-784: Is rendered as ܚܳܪܳܢ ( hrn ) in Aramaic , חָרָן ( Ḥaran ) in Hebrew , حَرَّان ( Ḥarrân ) in Arabic , حران ( Harrān ) in Ottoman Turkish , and Harran in modern Turkish . The ancient Assyrians called the city Huzirina . Ḫarrānu was Hellenised to Kárrhai (Kάρραι) in the Hellenistic period . The Romans later Latinised the Greek name into Carrhae . Due to the prominence of both Harran and Carrhae in historical literary sources, some scholars use
6440-583: Is the origin of the English phrase "to sell one's birthright for a mess of pottage ". In Genesis 27:1–40 , Jacob uses deception, motivated by his mother Rebekah , to lay claim to his blind father Isaac's blessing that was inherently due to the firstborn, Esau. In Genesis 27:5–7 , Rebekah is listening while Isaac speaks to his son Esau. When Esau goes to the field to hunt for venison to bring home, Rebekah says to her son Jacob, "Behold, I heard thy father speak to thy brother Esau, saying: 'Bring me venison and prepare
6601-541: Is used to denote teach or guide from the Edomite word for duke is used 69 times in the Tanakh. If the account may be taken at face value, the kingship of Edom was, at least in early times, not hereditary , perhaps elective . The first book of Chronicles mentions both a king and chieftains . Moses and the Israelite people twice appealed to their common ancestry and asked the king of Edom for passage through his land, along
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6762-697: The ketubbot used by Jews. However, despite these cultural similarities, some Jews maintained a distinct boundary between themselves and the Idumeans. This is evident in Ben Sira 50:25–26, which expresses disdain for three "nations," including "the inhabitants of Se'ir", referring to the Edomites/Idumeans. During the revolt of the Maccabees against the Seleucid kingdom (early 2nd century BC), II Maccabees refers to
6923-543: The Book of Genesis as the town where Abraham and his family stopped on their way from Ur of the Chaldees to Canaan . The last pagan Roman emperor, Julian ( r. 361–363 ) intentionally avoided the Christian Edessa and instead stopped at Harran in 363 to consult the oracles of the moon temple on his upcoming Persian campaign . Although it is known that Sin was still worshipped at Harran in this time Julian
7084-702: The New Testament . During the 2nd century BC, the Edomites were forcibly converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans and were incorporated into the Jewish population . Other scholars believe that the assimilation was voluntary. Edom and Idumea are two related but distinct terms; they relate to a historically-contiguous population but to two separate, if adjacent, territories which the Edomites/Idumeans occupied in different periods of their history. The Edomites first established
7245-645: The Pharisees . By 66 CE, during the First Jewish–Roman War , the Zealot leader Simon bar Giora attacked the Jewish converts of Upper Idumaea and brought near complete destruction to the surrounding villages and countryside in that region. It was part of his wider plan to attack Jerusalem and seize authority for himself. According to Josephus, during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Titus , 20,000 Idumaeans, under
7406-580: The intertestamental period , Edom had replaced Babylon as the nation that burned the Temple ("Thou hast also vowed to build thy temple, which the Edomites burned when Judah was laid waste by the Chaldees"). In the Book of Jubilees , Esau's father, Isaac, compels Esau to swear not to attack or kill Jacob after Isaac has died. However, after the death of Isaac, the sons of Esau convince their father to lead them, and hired mercenaries , against Jacob in order to kill Jacob and his family and seize their wealth (especially
7567-434: The "King's Highway", on their way to Canaan , but the king refused permission. Accordingly, they detoured around the country because of his show of force or because God ordered them to do so rather than wage war ( Deuteronomy 2:4–6 ). The king of Edom did not attack the Israelites, though he prepared to resist aggression. Nothing further is recorded of the Edomites in the Tanakh until their defeat by King Saul of Israel in
7728-626: The 11–13th centuries when the region surrounding Harran experienced considerable political turmoil. The castle has recently been partially excavated and reconstructed with the support of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism . Harran was the site of the oldest mosque built in Anatolia, known as the Grand Mosque or Paradise Mosque. The mosque was built by the Umayyad caliph Marwan II in 744–750, at
7889-504: The 1270s. The Mamluks repaired the castle at some point, most likely in the 1330s or 1340s, and it became the seat of a local military governor, but there was otherwise little effort spent on trying to revive the city. By this point Harran was no longer on any of the major trade routes. A small village-sized settlement sprung up at the site, probably in the immediate vicinity of the castle. The space within Harran's city walls gradually filled up with dirt and sand through natural means. Over
8050-516: The 12th century, Harran at times fell under the influence of the County of Edessa , a short-lived crusader state . There is no record of the crusaders ever conquering Harran but the Harran Castle preserves remnants of a Christian chapel with distinct crusader architecture, perhaps suggesting a peaceful crusader presence. The growth of Edessa under Christian rule contributed to the decline of Harran. Edessa
8211-428: The 12th-century explorer Ibn Jubayr but not by the 17th-century explorer Evliya Çelebi . The majority of the present beehive houses in Harran date to the early twentieth century and none have been standing for longer than since the mid-19th century. The architecture of the beehive houses has subtly changed since the twentieth century; photographs from that time show the houses erected on the grounds like tents whereas
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#17328518148288372-543: The 25th and 20th centuries BC, possibly as a merchant colony by Sumerian traders from Ur . Over the course of its early history, Harran rapidly grew into a major Mesopotamian cultural, commercial and religious center. It was made a religiously and politically influential city through its association with the moon-god Sin ; many prominent Mesopotamian rulers consulted with and renovated the moon-temple of Ekhulkhul in Harran. Harran came under Assyrian rule under Adad-nirari I ( r. 1305–1274 BC) and became
8533-569: The Babylonians: The Lord is asked to "remember against the Edomites the day of Jerusalem, how they said 'raze it, raze it to its foundations'" in Psalm 137 :7 However, the prophecy of Obadiah insists on the literal "violence done" by Esau "unto your brother Jacob" when the Edomites "entered the gate of my people..., looted his goods..., stood at the parting of the ways to cut off the fugitive,... delivered up his survivors on his day of distress". By
8694-508: The Bishop of Harran, Stephen, to persecute the pagans of Harran. Many who refused to convert to Christianity, including the governor Acindynus , were executed. By this time, the Christians and pagans of Harran lived in separate quarters of the city. Maurice's persecution of the pagans of Harran had little effect on the strength of the pagan community and Harran remained a largely pagan city. When
8855-649: The Cave of the Patriarchs is also recorded in Sefer HaYashar . South of the Palestinian town of Sa'ir on the West Bank there is a tomb reputed to be that of Esau – El 'Ais in his Arab name. The PEF 's Survey of Western Palestine (SWP) wrote: The tomb is in a chamber 37 feet east and west by 20 feet north and south, with a Mihrab on the south wall. The tomb is 12 feet long, 3 1/2 feet broad, 5 feet high, covered with
9016-469: The Edomites settled during the Persian period in an area comprising the southern hills of Judea down to the area north of Be'er Sheva . The people appear under a Greek form of their old name, as Idumeans or Idumaeans , and their new territory was called Idumea or Idumaea ( Greek : Ἰδουμαία, Idoumaía ; Latin : Idūmaea ), a term that was used in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, also mentioned in
9177-449: The Edomites who were established to the south of the Israelites. They were an ancient enemy nation of Israel. The minor prophets, such as Obadiah , claim that the Edomites participated in the destruction of Solomon's Temple in the Siege of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Exactly how the Edomites participated is not clear. Psalm 137 ("By the waters of Babylon") suggests merely that Edom had encouraged
9338-525: The Egyptian inscriptions, the "Aduma" at times extended their possessions to the borders of Egypt. The existence of the Kingdom of Edom was asserted by archaeologists led by Ezra Ben-Yosef and Tom Levy, by using a methodology called the punctuated equilibrium model in 2019. Archaeologists mainly took copper samples from Timna Valley and Faynan in Jordan’s Arava valley dated to 1300-800 BC. According to
9499-481: The Harranians to aid him against Mu'awiya I , the first Umayyad caliph, but the Harranians instead sided with Mu'awiya at the Battle of Siffin in the same year. In response, it is said that Ali enacted a brutal massacre in Harran, exterminating most of the inhabitants. Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran was renovated and prospered once more. In 717, Caliph Umar II founded the first Muslim university at Harran, bringing many scholars from other cities in
9660-483: The Idumeans joined Judeans, Jerusalemites, Tyrians , Sidonians and east Jordanians in meeting Jesus by the Sea of Galilee . The Mishnah refers to Rabbi Ishmael 's dwelling place in Kfar Aziz as being "near to Edom." The nature of Edomite religion is largely unknown before their conversion to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. Epigraphical evidence suggests that the national god of Edom was Qaus (קוס) (also known as 'Qaush', 'Kaush', 'Kaus', 'Kos' or 'Qaws'), since Qaus
9821-482: The Islamic period. The city retained a highly heterogenous population that practiced many different religions. Some adopted syncretistic faiths tolerable by the Muslims, others continued to honor the old deities of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, and some primarily worshipped the stars and planets. The Harranian pagans considered themselves the heirs of ancient star-worshipping civilizations such as Babylonia, Greece, India, Persia and Egypt. In addition to pagans, Harran
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#17328518148289982-414: The Islamic period. It flourished as a center of science and learning and was the site of both the first Islamic university (the Harran University ) and the oldest mosque in Anatolia (the Harran Grand Mosque [ tr ] ). Harran twice served as a capital city in the Middle Ages, first briefly under the Umayyad Caliphate (744–750) and later under the Numayrid Emirate (990–1081). The city
10143-541: The Israelites. Hence the Book of Psalms says "Moab is my washpot: over Edom will I cast out my shoe". According to the Torah , the congregation could not receive descendants of a marriage between an Israelite and an Edomite until the fourth generation. This law was a subject of controversy between Shimon ben Yohai , who said it applied only to male descendants, and other Tannaim , who said female descendants were also excluded for four generations. From these, some early conversion laws in halacha were derived. Compared to
10304-538: The Judeans. The reports of forced conversions, in this view, are either anti-Hasmonean propaganda or, conversely, Hasmonean propaganda, which Josephus (mistakenly) incorporated into his historical work. (c) Fictional Conquest: Atkinson takes this further by considering the entire account of the conquest to be fictional. He also believes that "many Idumeans [...] never fully embraced Judaism." (d) No Annexation: However, while Atkinson still maintains that archaeology suggests "the region south of Judea [including Maresha]
10465-404: The Khwarazmians by the Ayyubids in 1240 by An-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. Harran was captured by the Mongol Empire under Hulagu Khan in 1259 or 1260 through the peaceful surrender of its governor. The Harran Castle, as was traditional placed under a different governor, continued to resist for some time until one of the towers were breached. Under the Mongols, Harran continued to flourish for
10626-433: The Messiah's rulership, according to the prophets. Despite this, many Edomites peacefully migrated to southern Judea, which continued even during the reign of Nabonidus . Regarding the territory of Edom, the book of Jeremiah states that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it". Although the Idumaeans controlled the lands to the east and south of the Dead Sea, their peoples were held in contempt by
10787-441: The Muslim tradition, the prophet Yaqub , or Israel, was the favorite of his mother, and his twin brother Esau was the favorite of his father, prophet Ishaq , and he is mentioned in the "Story of Ya'qub" in Qisas al-Anbiya . Genesis 25 :25 narrates Esau's birth, "Now the first came forth red, all over like a hairy garment; and they named him Esau." The meaning of the word esau itself is not entirely certain. Others have noted
10948-416: The Roman conquest, was of Idumean origin. Under Herod the Great , the Idumaea province was ruled for him by a series of governors, among whom were his brother Joseph ben Antipater and his brother-in-law Costobarus . Overall, Herodian influence on Judea, Jerusalem and the Temple was significant. However, this was obsfucated by later variants of Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinic Judaism . For example,
11109-417: The South but Jacob decides later to move to the North. See: Wives of Esau . Genesis 26:34–35 describes Esau's marriage at the age of forty to two Canaanite women: Judith, the daughter of Beeri the Hittite , and Basemath the daughter of Elon the Hittite. This arrangement grieved his parents. Upon seeing that his brother was blessed and that their father rejected Esau's union to Canaanites, Esau went to
11270-420: The Umayyads. The move of the capital to Harran caused some outrage; the Banu Kalb tribe saw it as an abandonment of Syria and under Yazid ibn Khalid al-Qasri besieged the former capital of Damascus before being suppressed. Harran did not continue to function as a capital under the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate , though the city enjoyed some special privileges. When Al-Mansur ( r. 754–775 ) ordered
11431-414: The amount of productive land and the relatively limited area reserved for urban development. In his seyahatnâme from the 17th century, Evliya Çelebi mentioned that the vicinity of Harran was inhabited by Bedouins of Qays and Mawali tribes. The local culture is predominantly Arabic in terms of lifestyle, clothing and food. Harran has close social, cultural, commercial and urban relations with Urfa,
11592-411: The ancient ruins since the 1950s, newer houses constructed in Harran are mostly concrete structures with no architectural relation to the beehive houses. Concrete houses have been built both alongside beehive houses and outside the ancient city walls. The majority of the population of Harran today live in a more newly constructed village about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) from the old city center. Harran
11753-419: The ancient walls they only produced brackish water and were thus only useful for providing water to animals. The water at Harran had perhaps been contaminated from seeping saltpeter from its ancient ruins. Since the middle of the 20th century, Harran has re-transitioned into a permanently inhabited settlement due to local advancements in irrigation and agriculture. Particularly important in this development
11914-608: The area during the late Persian period . Strabo identifies Idumeans with the Nabateans who were expelled to southern Judea after committing sedition. However, there is evidence for cultural continuity between the Iron Age Edom and Idumea, based on settlement patterns and religious practices . During the Hellenistic period , both Jews and Idumeans spoke Aramaic and used it for literary and legal documents. An Idumean marriage contract from Maresha, dating from 176 BCE, closely resembles
12075-537: The armies of the Rashidun Caliphate , led by the general Iyad ibn Ghanm , besieged Harran in the winter of 639–640 it was the pagans of the city who negotiated its peaceful surrender. Ibn Ghanm is recorded to have given the pagans of Harran a new moon temple after the capture of the city. Harran under Islamic rule became one of the most important settlements in the Diyar Mudar district. In 657, Caliph Ali asked
12236-455: The biblical story that there was an Edomite kingdom here." After the conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, Edomites settled in the region of Hebron . They prospered in this new country, called by the Greeks and Romans "Idumaea" or "Idumea", for more than four centuries. Strabo , writing around the time of Jesus , held that the Idumaeans, whom he identified as of Nabataean origin, constituted
12397-547: The book " protected under Islamic law). Unable to claim that they were, the people of Harran instead claimed that they were " Sabians ", a mysterious religious group also protected according to the Quran but who no one at the time knew who they were. Upon being inquired who their prophet was, the Harranians claimed that their prophet was the legendary Hellenistic figure Hermes Trismegistus . There were many Islamic writers who saw through
12558-512: The border between the ancient Mesopotamian and Anatolian cultures. The earliest known settlements in the region surrounding Harran date to 10000–8000 BC and settlements in its close vicinity are known to have existed by 6000 BC. The region initially shifted between the control of the Sumerians and Hittites before being occupied by ancient Semitic-speaking people around 2750 BC. The earliest written records concerning Harran suggest that
12719-495: The caliphate (including Alexandria ) and installing them in Harran. Harran was made the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate under its last caliph, Marwan II , from 744 to 750. The reason for Marwan moving his court to Harran is not known, but might be either to better monitor the troublesome eastern provinces of the caliphate or due to the anti-Christian sentiment of the city's pagan population, who had never been disloyal to
12880-434: The capital of Assur itself. In the 10th century, Harran was one of the few cities, along with Assur, to be exempt from needing to pay tribute to the Assyrian king and in the 9th and 8th centuries BC, Harran was made the seat of the turtanu , the Assyrian commander-in-chief. Since Harran was the sacred city of the moon-god, many Mesopotamian kings travelled there to receive the blessing and confirmation of their rule from
13041-415: The cave to Jacob. Hushim (who was hard of hearing) did not understand what was going on, and why his grandfather was not being buried, so he asked for an explanation; after being given one he became angry and said: "Is my grandfather to lie there in contempt until Naphtali returns from the land of Egypt?" He then took a club and killed Esau, and Esau's head rolled into the cave. This means that the head of Esau
13202-504: The centuries, few structures remained above the soil; the castle survived owing to its position on a hill and its continued usage. The remnants of the mosque were also kept clear due to its religious and historical significance. Under the Ottoman Empire , which captured the region in the early 16th century, Harran was the capital of a nahiyah (a local administrative unit composed of a group of villages). The demolished Harran University
13363-480: The city from paying the tribute he demanded from Edessa on account of Harran not being Christian like his enemies but rather a stronghold of the "old religion". The endurance of paganism at Harran in the Christian late Roman Empire is likely only explainable through the pagans there offering regular bribes to church officials and civil administrators in the region. In 590, Emperor Maurice ( r. 582–602 ) ordered
13524-469: The city from the earliest documents mentioning it and has remained in continuous use and largely unchanged since ancient times. Harran is mentioned in early cuneiform records of the Sumerians and Hittites as 𒌷𒊮𒆜 ( URU.ŠÀ.KASKAL ), sometimes shortened to 𒆜 ( KASKAL ), transliterated as Ḫarrānu ( m ). Ḫarrānu literally means "journey", "caravan" or "crossroad". It is often interpreted as "caravan path" or "intersection of routes and travel". Harran
13685-510: The city itself was founded c. 2500 –2000 BC as a merchant outpost by traders from the Sumerian city of Ur . Harran was from early on associated with the Mesopotamian moon-god Nanna (later known as Sin) and soon became regarded as a sacred city of the moon. The Ekhulkhul ("Temple of Rejoicing"), Harran's great moon temple, was already present in the city by c. 2000 BC. Sin
13846-611: The city steadily declined in importance. Harran was captured by Khwarazmians in 1237, driven from their homeland following the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire , but the castle was retained and fortified by the Ayyubid ruler As-Salih Ayyub though he soon had to give it up to broker a deal with the Khwarazmians for military aid against Badr al-Din Lu'lu' of Mosul. Harran was later regained from
14007-510: The city was Sin's son Nusku , the god of light. Although next to nothing is known of the architecture and layout of Harran prior to the Middle Ages, the city is believed to have been designed according to a vaguely moon-shaped plan since Medieval sources allude to this. What kind of moon shape is meant by the sources is not clear. The religious authorities of Harran, speaking on behalf of Sin, were considered suitable guarantors and signatories in political treaties. Already c. 2000 BC,
14168-544: The city's religious officials and in turn renovated and expanded Harran and its temples. The Ekhulkhul was renovated twice in the Neo-Assyrian period by the kings Shalmaneser III ( r. 859–824 BC) and Ashurbanipal ( r. 669–631 BC). Prophecies made by prophets and oracles of the moon cult of Harran were held in high regard; in the 670s BC the Harranians correctly prophesied that Esarhaddon ( r. 681–669 BC) would conquer Egypt and Sasi ,
14329-481: The claims of Harranians and still considered them to be pagans and not Sabians, and thus lacking any special right to toleration or protection. In 933, the Harranian pagans were ordered through a decree to convert to Islam, but a visitor to the city in the following year found that there were still pagan religious leaders operating a remaining public temple. Toleration of the pagans at Harran appears to have been renewed in
14490-588: The collapse of the Seleucid Empire, Harran became part of the Kingdom of Osroene in 132 BC, ruled by the Nabatean Arab Abgarid dynasty and most frequently a vassal state of the Parthian Empire . Abgarid rule may have encouraged the local moon cult; the moon was important in both the ancient Bedouin and Nabatean Arab religions. From the first century BC until the end of antiquity, Harran
14651-516: The compound name "Carrhae-Harran" for the ancient city. Under the Byzantine Empire , the city continued to be called Carrhae (Kάρραι) but was also sometimes referred to as Hellenopolis (Eλληνóπoλις), "city of the pagan Greeks", in reference to the strong pagan traditions there. Harran is situated at an important geographical crossroad, both between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and at
14812-456: The concubine of Eliphaz , firstborn son of Esau". According to Rashi, Isaac, when blessing Jacob in Esau's place, smelled the heavenly scent of Gan Eden (Paradise) when Jacob entered his room and, in contrast, perceived Gehenna opening beneath Esau when the latter entered the room, showing him that he had been deceived all along by Esau's show of piety. In Jewish folklore, the Roman emperor Titus
14973-467: The converted moon temple. The castle being on the site of the ancient temple is further supported by its higher elevation whereas the mosque is further supported by the finds of Babylonian inscriptions and four stelae of Nabonidus among its ruins. These inscriptions and stelae directly mention the Elkhulkhul. Additionally, the remains of an ancient altar with moon iconography have also been recovered from
15134-564: The days and nights. There are 136 neighbourhoods in Harran District: In its most prosperous periods in ancient and medieval history Harran was probably home to around 10,000–20,000 residents. As a result of Harran's retransition into a permanent settlement over the course of the late 20th century and early 21st century, the city and surrounding district has experienced a rapid population increase. Despite this, Harran retains predominantly rural characteristics. As of 2022, Harran had
15295-458: The destruction of the walls of all cities in northern Mesopotamia, Harran was a notable exception. The Harran University underwent its golden age in the 8th century, particularly under the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid ( r. 786–809 ). Many prominent scholars of this time were educated at the university in subjects such as mathematics, philosophy, medicine and astrology. The university
15456-452: The envy of Laban and Laban's sons. Genesis 32–33 tells of Jacob's and Esau's eventual reconciliation. Jacob sends multiple waves of gifts to Esau as they approach each other, hoping that Esau will spare his life. Esau refuses the gifts, as he is now very wealthy and does not need them. Jacob bows down before Esau and insists on his receiving the gifts. Esau shows forgiveness in spite of this bitter conflict. He then asks Jacob to follow him to
15617-690: The fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, Harran was successively under the control of the Achaemenid (539–330 BC), Macedonian (330–312 BC) and Seleucid (312–132 BC) empires. Under the Seleucids, Harran largely functioned as a military colony and from the time of the Macedonian conquest onwards, many Greeks settled in Harran. Under the centuries of Hellenic control, Harran gradually underwent some Hellenization of its culture. After
15778-457: The fields. He begs Jacob to give him some "red pottage" (a play on his nickname, Edom .) This refers to his red hair. Jacob offers Esau a bowl of lentil stew (Hebrew: נְזִיד עֲדָשִׁ֔ים , romanized: nəziḏ ʿəḏāšim ) in exchange for Esau's birthright (Hebrew: בְּכֹרָה , romanized: bəḵorā ), the right to be recognized as firstborn son with authority over the family, and Esau agrees. Thus Jacob acquires Esau's birthright. This
15939-472: The first half of the 2nd century BC. More recent excavations show that the process of Edomite settlement in the southern parts of Judah and parts of the Negev down to Timna had started already before the destruction of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar II in 587/86 BC, both by peaceful penetration and by military means and taking advantage of the already-weakened state of Judah. Once pushed out of their territory,
16100-556: The house of his uncle Ishmael and married his cousin, Mahalath the daughter of Ishmael, and sister of Nebaioth . Esau's family is again revisited in Genesis 36 , this passage names two Canaanite wives; Adhah , the daughter of Elon the Hittite, and Aholibamah , the daughter of Anah, daughter of Zibeon the Hivite , and a third: Bashemath, Ishmael's daughter, sister of Nebaioth. Some scholars equate
16261-588: The increasingly Christianised late Roman Empire. As late as the early 5th century, the theologian Theodoret wrote that Harran was "a barbarous place, full of the thorns of paganism". At the Second Council of Ephesus (449), the Bishop of Harran , Stephen, was accused of accepting bribes from pagans to let them practice their rituals in peace. Harran was briefly captured by the Sasanian king Khosrow I in 549, who exempted
16422-640: The influx of Idumaeans into the Mount Hebron region, shortly after the demise of the kingdom of Judah and the Judean exile in the 6th-century BC. Strabo describes western Judea as being populated by Idumeans, who commingled with Judeans and adopted their customs. Archaeological records gleaned from Maresha , though largely of Idumaean origin, attest to the region being under the influences of Greek culture , as well as that of Nabatean/Arab, Phoenician , Palmyrene and Jewish culture. The Gospel of Mark states that
16583-440: The inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunction with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed ( 2 Chronicles 20:10–23 ). Edom revolted against Jehoram and elected a king of its own ( 2 Kings 8:20–22 ; 2 Chronicles 21:8 ). Amaziah attacked and defeated the Edomites, seizing Selah, but the Israelites never subdued Edom completely ( 2 Kings 14:7 ; 2 Chronicles 25:11–12 ). In
16744-453: The land of Temani ruled in his place. And Husham died, and Hadad ben Bedad , who struck Midian in the field of Moab , ruled in his place, and the name of his city was Avith . And Hadad died, and Samlah of Masrekah ruled in his place. And Samlah died, and Saul of Rehoboth on the river ruled in his place. And Saul died, and Baal-hanan ben Achbor ruled in his place. And Baal-hanan ben Achbor died, and Hadar ruled in his place, and
16905-518: The last moon temples were closed and destroyed. The precise date when this happened and the events surrounding it are unknown, perhaps coinciding with the city falling under the control of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1038 through the submission of the Numayrid ruler Shabīb ibn Waththāb , or more likely with a failed anti-Uqaylid rebellion in 1083. Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad reported that a Sabian temple
17066-575: The late 10th century. The power of the Abbasid Caliphate and its vassals in the region around Harran (the Hamdanid dynasty ) declined at the end of the 10th century. A new local Arab dynasty emerged during this time, the Numayrid dynasty , who ruled a small realm with Harran as its capital from 990 to 1081. The toleration of paganism at Harran was at last revoked for the final time in the 11th century and
17227-464: The late 11th century BC ( 1 Samuel 14:47 ). Forty years later King David and his general Joab defeated the Edomites in the " Valley of Salt " (probably near the Dead Sea ; 2 Samuel 8:13–14 ; 1 Kings 9:15–16 ). An Edomite prince named Hadad escaped and fled to Egypt, and after David's death he returned and tried to start a rebellion but failed and went to Syria ( Aramea ). From that time Edom remained
17388-519: The laws of the Jews. And so, out of attachment to the land of their fathers, they submitted to circumcision and to make their manner of life conform in all other respects to that of the Jews. And from that time onward they have continued to be Jews. However, since the late 1980s, scholars have increasingly questioned the traditional account of Idumaea's conquest and forced conversion by the Hasmoneans . Several reasons have been proposed for this skepticism. As
17549-600: The leadership of John, Simon, Phinehas, and Jacob, joined the Zealots as they besieged the Temple . Idumean zealotry arguably reflected their attempts to 'prove' their Jewishness. After the Jewish–Roman wars , the Idumaean people disappear from written history, though the geographical region of "Idumea" is still referred to at the time of Jerome . Josephus, when referring to Upper Idumaea, speaks of towns and villages immediately to
17710-509: The majority of the population of western Judea , where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs, a view not necessarily shared by modern scholarly works. The Edomites' original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from the Sinai Peninsula as far as Kadesh Barnea . It reached as far south as Eilat , which was the seaport of Edom. On the north of Edom was
17871-534: The many cultures that have inhabited Harran constructed them is not known. The walls were most likely constructed under either Roman or Byzantine rule. Inscriptions in both Greek and Syriac have been discovered during excavations of parts of the walls. The walls of Harran resemble those of the nearby Edessa, though are slightly smaller. They are vaguely elliptical in layout, normally around 3 metres (9.8 feet) thick and approximately 4.5 kilometres (2.8 miles) long and 5 metres (16 feet) high. Before they fell into ruin,
18032-449: The middle of the 20th century, Harran comprised about a hundred houses, inhabited by semi-settled nomadic Arabs, most of whom still did not stay at the site for the duration of the entire year. The city's ancient water systems had long fallen into disrepair and Harran in the 20th century had only a single source of drinking water, Jacob's Well, about 1.6 kilometres (0.99 miles) west of its walls. Although six wells were still operational within
18193-400: The name of his city was Pau , and his wife's name was Mehetabel bat Matred bat Mezahab. And these are the names of the clans of Esau by their families, by their places, by their names: clan Timnah , clan Alvah , clan Jetheth , clan Aholibamah , clan Elah , clan Pinon , clan Kenaz , clan Teman , clan Mibzar , clan Magdiel, clan Iram . The Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan
18354-568: The nation flourished between the 13th and the 8th centuries BC and was destroyed after a period of decline in the 6th century BC by the Babylonians . After the fall of the kingdom of Edom, the Edomites were pushed westward towards southern Judah by nomadic tribes coming from the east; among them were the Nabataeans , who first appeared in the historical annals of the 4th century BC and had already established their own kingdom in what used to be Edom by
18515-488: The nearby Adoraim : according to Josephus and Ammonius Grammaticus , Hyrcanus conquered the cities of Marisa and Adoraim, forcibly converted all Idumaeans to Judaism and incorporated them into the Jewish nation : Hyrcanus also captured the Idumean cities of Adora and Marisa and after subduing all the Idumeans, permitted them to remain in their country as long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing to observe
18676-513: The neighboring Moabites and Ammonites, the name "Edom" completely disappeared from the area east of Arabah . The Qedarites controlled the territory, followed by the Nabateans, thus ensuring the end of Iron Age Edom. According to ostraca from sites in Idumaea, i.e. southern Judah after the fall of the kingdom to the Babylonians, dating mainly to the 4th century BCE, a diverse population of Arabs, Edomites as well as Judeans and Phoenicians inhabited
18837-414: The new religion very early, Harran remained a pagan stronghold for centuries and became the largest center of pagan cults in eastern Syria. Harran was still overwhelmingly pagan in the 4th century, to the degree that the bishop appointed to Harran in 361 refused to reside in the city and instead lived in Edessa. Despite its paganism, Harran was a site of interest to Christians since the city is mentioned in
18998-461: The newly established Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Medes . The Assyrian capital of Nineveh fell in 612 BC but the remnants of the Assyrian army, led by Crown Prince Aššur-uballiṭ II , rallied at Harran. Harran is therefore typically regarded as the short-lived final capital of ancient Assyria. Aššur-uballiṭ II underwent a coronation ceremony at Harran, being invested with rulership by Sin. After
19159-466: The nomadic lifestyle of the locals since they can be built and dismantled rapidly, like a tent, but also efficiently resist both heat and cold. Because of the weak materials used for plastering the beehive houses require repair every 1–3 years. Their walls are usually 50–60 centimetres thick and their domes are about 20–30 centimetres thick. The domes have an opening at the top which provides natural air circulation and ventilation. This feature, combined with
19320-606: The oldest extant buildings in Harran is a beehive complex that today serves as the Harran Culture House ( Harran Kültür Evi ), a local museum and restaurant. The Culture House building was originally built c. 1800 but fell into ruins at some point and was rebuilt for tourism purposes in 1999. The museum showcases artefacts as well as traditional jewelry and clothes from the region surrounding Harran. Since prohibitions relating to conservation of historical monuments has hindered locals from gathering building materials from
19481-581: The portion of Isaac's wealth that Isaac had left to Jacob upon his death). "Then Ya'aqov bent his bow and sent forth the arrow and struck Esau, his brother on his right breast and slew him (Jubilees 38:2) . . . Ya'aqov buried his brother on the hill which is in Aduram, and he returned to his house (Jubilees 38:9b)." Hebrews 12:15–16 depicts Esau as unspiritual for thoughtlessly throwing away his birthright. Romans 9:13 states "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated," based upon Malachi 1:2–3 . According to Islamic scholars,
19642-467: The present conical domes are built on larger cubical bases. Since wood is rare in the region around Harran owing to its climate, locals have traditionally built houses from materials they could easily gather such as stone, brick and mud. The modern beehive houses were constructed by locals who learnt how to build them by examining excavated ancient buildings and used bricks gathered from the ruins as building material. The beehive houses were compatible with
19803-402: The prophet Ayyub was the great grandson of Esau's son Reuel . The Targum Pseudo-Jonathan connects the name Esau to the Hebrew asah , stating, "because he was born fully completed, with hair of the head, beard, teeth, and molars." Other traditional sources connect the word with Hebrew: שָׁוְא , romanized: šāwʾ , lit. 'worthless'. Jewish commentaries have
19964-459: The reign of Merneptah reports movement of nomadic "shasu-tribes of Edom" to watering holes in Egyptian territory. The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 11th century BC. Settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC, and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. The last unambiguous reference to Edom is an Assyrian inscription of 667 BC. Edom ceased to exist as
20125-482: The remaining Idumeans may have entered into an alliance with the Judeans, within which the Idumaean religion could continue to be practiced. This reinterpretation leaves the prior depopulation of Idumaea as an open question, comparable to the simultaneous depopulation of Galilee and Philistia . Antipater the Idumaean , the progenitor of the Herodian dynasty along with Judean progenitors that ruled Judea after
20286-539: The results of the analysis, the researchers thought that Pharaoh Shoshenk I of Egypt (the Biblical " Shishak "), who attacked Jerusalem in the 10th century BC, encouraged the trade and production of copper instead of destroying the region. Tel Aviv University professor Ben Yosef stated "Our new findings contradict the view of many archaeologists that the Arava was populated by a loose alliance of tribes, and they’re consistent with
20447-418: The ruins of the mosque. As a result, the mosque enjoys more scholarly support as the most likely site of the ancient temple. The old town of Harran is still largely surrounded by Harran's ancient city walls. Though they are in generally poor condition, some stretches are well-preserved in good condition and give an idea of how the settlement once looked. The exact date of the current walls and which of
20608-541: The rule of the Ayyubid Sultanate , which followed the Zengids. Saladin ( r. 1174–1193 ) at some point enlarged Harran's Grand Mosque [ tr ] and thereafter granted Harran to his brother Al-Adil I (later sultan 1200–1218). Al-Adil later gave Harran to his son Al-Kamil (later sultan 1218–1238). Harran was then under the rule of Al-Kamil's brother Al-Ashraf Musa 1202–1228/1229, after whose death
20769-586: The scholar Thābit ibn Qurra in the late 9th century, who could have learnt Neoplatonism in Baghdad. Alternatively, Neoplatonism might have been brought to Harran as early as the 6th century by Neoplatonists such as Simplicius of Cilicia , who fled persecution in the Byzantine Empire. The local Harranian religion continued to develop as a blend of ancient Mesopotamian religion and Neoplatonism and Harran remained notorious for its strong pagan traditions long into
20930-548: The similarity to Arabic : عثا , romanized : ʿaṯā , lit. 'hirsute'. The name Edom (Hebrew: אדום , romanized: ʾəḏom ) is also attributed to Esau, meaning "red"; the same color is used to describe the color of his hair. Genesis parallels his redness to the "red lentil pottage " that he sold his birthright for. Esau became the progenitor of the Edomites in Mount Seir . In Genesis, Esau returned to his twin brother Jacob, famished from
21091-462: The site. The precise location of the ancient great Ekhulkhul temple is unknown and no certain archaeological evidence of it has yet been found. It is likely that one of the major medieval buildings of Harran displaced the Elkhulkhul and were constructed on top of it, either the Harran Castle or the Grand Mosque. Writings from the Islamic period contradictingly claim that the castle or the mosque were
21252-476: The south and south-west of Jerusalem, such as Hebron ( Antiq . 12.8.6, Wars 4.9.7), Halhul , in Greek called Alurus ( Wars 4.9.6), Bethsura ( Antiq . 12.9.4), Begabris ( Wars 4.8.1.), Dura (Adorayim) ( Antiq . 13.9.1, Wars 1.2.5), Caphethra ( Wars 4.9.9), Bethletephon ( Wars 4.8.1), Tekoa ( Wars 4.9.5), and Marissa ( Antiq . 13.9.1, Wars 1.2.5), the latter being a principal city of Idumaea after
21413-403: The temple of Sin. Harran, along with the nearby cities of Nisibis and Hatra , were captured by the Sasanian king Ardashir I in 238–240 but was swiftly retaken by Emperor Gordian III . Later in 296, Harran was also the site of a battle where the future emperor Galerius suffered a crushing defeat against the Sasanian king Narseh . In the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus (359), it
21574-453: The territory of Moab . The boundary between Moab and Edom was the brook of Zered . The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah . According to Genesis , Esau's descendants settled in the land after they had displaced the Horites . It was also called the land of Seir; Mount Seir appears to have been strongly identified with them and may have been a cultic site. According to biblical narrative, at
21735-427: The thick walls, provide relatively good indoor conditions throughout the year, even in the extreme summer heat. As of a count conducted in 2002, Harran had 2,760 beehive houses though the number in the old town has since declined to a few dozen. Some of the beehive houses remained inhabited until the 1980s but they are today mainly used as store houses and barns and have been under conservation since 1979. One of
21896-563: The three wives mentioned in Genesis 26 and 28 with those in Genesis 36. Casting his lot with the Ishmaelites , he was able to drive the Horites out of Mount Seir to settle in that region. According to some views, Esau is considered to be the progenitor not only of the Edomites but of the Kenizzites and the Amalekites as well. Esau had five sons: Esau was also known as Edom, the progenitor of
22057-522: The time of Amaziah (838 BC), Selah was its principal stronghold, Eilat and Ezion-geber its seaports. Genesis 36:31-43 lists the kings of Edom "before any Israelite king reigned": These are the kings who ruled in the land of Edom before a king ruled the children of Israel. And Bela ben Beor ruled in Edom, and the name of his city was Dinhabah . And Bela died, and Jobab ben Zerah from Bozrah ruled in his place. And Jobab died, and Husham of
22218-430: The time of Nebuchadnezzar II the Edomites may have helped plunder Jerusalem and slaughter the Judaeans in 587 or 586 BCE ( Psalms 137:7 ; Obadiah 1:11–14 ). Some believe that it is for this reason the prophets denounced Edom ( Isaiah 34:5–8 ; Jeremiah 49:7–22 ; Obadiah passim ). Evidence also suggests that at that time Edom may have engaged in a treaty betrayal of Judah. The people of Edom would be dealt with during
22379-467: The time the city was his capital. The masonry of the mosque indicates that it was restored several times throughout its history. Measuring 104 by 107 metres (341 ft × 351 ft) at its height, the mosque has fallen into ruin over the centuries and little of it remains standing today. Remaining portions include the eastern wall, the mihrab , a fountain, and the 33.3-metre (109-foot) tall minaret . Another important historical monument in Harran
22540-474: The walls had 187 bastions and 6–8 gates, most of which are in ruined condition today. Only one of the medieval gates of Harran, the Aleppo Gate, remain standing today. The walls were once surrounded by a great moat filled with water. Harran mainly attracts attention today due to the distinctive vernacular architecture of the houses in its old town, known as beehive houses ( kümbets ). This building type
22701-413: The worst military defeats in Roman history. Osroene (and thus also Harran) first came under Roman control as a result of the wars of Lucius Verus and Avidius Cassius in 162–166 AD. Harran gained colonial status under Emperor Septimius Severus in 195. Sources from Roman times describe Harran as a fortified garrison town. In 217, the Roman emperor Caracalla was murdered in Harran while visiting
22862-451: Was a Turkish district until 1946, after when it was downgraded to a sub-district of the Akçakale district. It regained its status as a district in 1987. Today, it is a major local tourist spot. The town is particularly famous for its unique beehive houses , which are reminiscent of buildings that were already present at Harran in ancient Mesopotamian times. The name Harran is recorded for
23023-492: Was a descendant of Esau. According to the Babylonian Talmud , Esau was killed by Hushim , son of Dan , son of Jacob , because Esau obstructed the burial of Jacob into the cave of Machpelah . When Jacob was brought to be buried in the cave, Esau prevented the burial, claiming he had the right to be buried in the cave; after some negotiation Naphtali was sent to Egypt to retrieve the document stating Esau sold his part in
23184-472: Was a major deity in Ur, which also housed his main temple, but Harran's devotion to the moon can perhaps also be explained by its geography and climate. According to Donald Frew, the sun was a natural enemy in the hot and desolate landscape surrounding Harran whereas the night (and thus the moon) were more comforting. The sun-god Shamash is however also thought to have had a temple in Harran. Another prominent deity in
23345-469: Was also an important site for translations of documents from Syriac and Greek into Arabic and Harran flourished as a center of science and learning. Al-Rashid furthermore supplied Harran with a new water supply, constructing a canal from the Balikh River . At some point, Neoplatonism was introduced to Harranian intellectuals, though the precise timing is not clear. It might have been brought to Harran by
23506-400: Was also home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Samaritans , Zoroastrians , Manicheans , and other groups. In 830, Harun al-Rashid's son Al-Ma'mun ( r. 813–833 ) arrived at Harran with an army on his way to raid in the Byzantine Empire and intended to destroy the city due to its large pagan population. Al-Ma'mun asked the populace if they were Muslims, Christians or Jews (" people of
23667-455: Was also important due to its strategic placement on an intersection of trade routes. Because Harran had an abundance of goods that passed through its region, it often became a target for raids. In the 19th century BC, the lands surrounding Harran were occupied by confederations of semi-nomadic tribes. In the following century the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad I ( r. 1808–1776 BC)
23828-644: Was an ancient kingdom that stretched across areas in the south of present-day Jordan and Israel . Edom and the Edomites appear in several written sources relating to the late Bronze Age and to the Iron Age in the Levant , including the list of the Egyptian pharaoh Seti I from c. 1215 BC as well as in the chronicle of a campaign by Ramesses III (r. 1186–1155 BC), and the Tanakh . Archaeological investigation has shown that
23989-517: Was annexed without any significant conflict," Berlin and Kosmin now argue that even the annexation of Idumea and the Idumeans into the Judean state is fictional, noting that, as corroborated by archaeology, after most Idumaeans left Idumaea, Judeans did not settle in this abandoned area. In line with this interpretation, it is now often assumed that Idumaea was not annexed by the Hasmoneans at all. Instead,
24150-522: Was born "red all over". As a young adult, he sold his birthright to his brother Jacob for a portion of "red pottage". The Tanakh describes the Edomites as descendants of Esau. Edom in hieroglyphs The Edomites may have been connected with the Shasu and Shutu , nomadic raiders mentioned in Egyptian sources. Indeed, a letter from an Egyptian scribe at a border fortress in the Wadi Tumilat during
24311-528: Was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1260 but was largely destroyed and left abandoned in 1271. Although Harran was kept as a military outpost under some later regimes, it has over the last five centuries mainly been used as a temporary settlement by local nomadic societies. Harran transitioned back into a semi-permanent village settlement in the 1840s, but has only recently grown into a permanent town through advancements in local irrigation and agriculture. Harran
24472-450: Was descended from the priests of "the Koze, whom the Idumeans had formerly served as a god". Victor Sasson describes an Edomite text that parallels the Book of Job , which provides insight on the language, literature, and religion of Edom. Khirbat en-Nahas is a large-scale copper-mining site excavated by archaeologist Thomas Levy in what is now southern Jordan. The scale of mining on the site
24633-597: Was destroyed by the Uqaylid dynasty governor Yahya ibn as-Shatir, who conquered Harran in 1081. In 1059, the Harran Castle , presumably constructed in Byzantine times, was rebuilt and strengthened by the Numayrid ruler Manīʿ ibn Shabīb . By the 1180s, Harran was fully devoted to Islam with little to no traces of its former moon cult. In the late 11th and early 12th century, political control in northern Mesopotamia and Syria
24794-428: Was founded at some point during Byzantine rule (4th–7th centuries). It is also possible that it was built under Muslim rule in the 9th century. If it was not built in the 9th century, it is likely to at least have been expanded in the early Islamic period. Before its fall into ruin, the castle was a three-story structure. It was probably initially a palace but was converted into a more castle-like militaristic building in
24955-666: Was fragmented. Harran was an important city to the various local Muslim rulers as a counterweight to the nearby crusader states . Numayrid control of Harran came to an end in 1081 when the city was captured by the Uqaylid dynasty. It was then under the control of various Turkish princes; first Jikirmish of Mosul (1102–1106), then the Artuqids of Mardin (1106–1127) and then the Zengid dynasty , which captured Harran under Imad al-Din Zengi in 1127. In
25116-474: Was later incorporated into the Mitanni kingdom in the 16th century BC. Harran was conquered from Mitanni by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari I ( r. 1305–1274 BC). The city would not be firmly incorporated into Middle Assyrian Empire until the 1100s BC, before which it was often occupied by Arameans . Under Assyria, Harran grew into a fortified provincial capital second in importance only to
25277-419: Was likely the decreasing water supply. It was impossible to sustain the population size of Harran with its water storage systems in disrepair and its wells no longer producing enough water. Another possible reason for the abandonment was the difficulty to retain and defend Harran and the little strategic value offered by the city in return. Harran was regained from the Mongols by the Mamluk Sultanate later in
25438-580: Was often contested between the Roman and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. In 53 BC Harran was the site of the Battle of Carrhae , one of the worst military defeats in Roman history. The Harranian moon cult of Sin proved to be enduring and lasted long into the Middle Ages , known to have existed as late as the 11th century AD. Harran was captured by the Rashidun Caliphate in 640 and remained an important city in
25599-436: Was repaired under the Ottoman sultan Selim I ( r. 1512–1520 ) though it again declined in importance after his reign. The Ottomans continued to use the castle, and also built a new smaller mosque in the southern part of the city, but Harran gradually declined over the course of Ottoman rule and was eventually entirely abandoned as a permanent settlement. Harran has over the last five hundred years mainly been used as
25760-430: Was the Turkish Southeastern Anatolia Project , launched in the 1970s, which through irrigation efforts transformed the formerly dry desert plains surrounding Harran into productive agricultural fields. Harran received its own plan for future development in 1992. The ruins of the ancient city were placed on the Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey in 2000. Accelerated economic and demographic growth in Harran
25921-435: Was typically located near or on the border of the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sasanian ) empires. Harran frequently changed hands between the two empires but was in practice often more or less independent. In 53 BC, the city was the site of the Battle of Carrhae between the Romans and Parthians, in which the Parthian general Surena defeated and killed the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus , one of
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