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109-640: The work's intent is to uphold early orthodox Christian doctrine, refuting Gnosticism and docetism . The teachings of the Gnostics Cerinthus and Simon Magus are denounced as false. In the debate on the nature of Jesus's existence of the 2nd century, the Epistle of the Apostles firmly advocates that the incarnation of Jesus was of flesh and blood, and that the future resurrection in the Kingdom of God would also be

218-471: A condemnation of anyone who denied the doctrines found in the Epistula Apostolorum, not merely Gnostics. And while it is clear that the work displays a strong emphasis on the importance of the flesh, this may have merely been an independent area of theological interest to the author and to 2nd century Christianity, and not necessarily an implication that there were rival docetists denying the flesh that

327-524: A final ascension into heaven after his appearances on earth. Other scholars note that the biblical authors tended to conflate or compress different events and narrate them as one which was a literary theme seen in other ancient biographies to improve the narrative flow. Such scholars caution against a strictly chronological reading. John's Gospel has three references to ascension in Jesus' own words: "No one has ascended into heaven but he who descended from heaven,

436-521: A fleshly experience. The work is presented as having been written shortly after the Resurrection of Jesus , and offers predictions of the coming of Paul of Tarsus , the fall of Jerusalem , and of the Second Coming happening imminently in the 2nd century CE. The text is commonly dated to the 2nd century, perhaps towards the first half of it. Charles E. Hill dates the Epistle to "just before 120, or in

545-558: A hostile manner: Jesus declares that false teachers will attempt to subvert his message in the future. One passage in the Epistle of the Apostles appears to depend on the original form of the Apocalypse of Peter , suggesting that it may have been composed afterward. The Apostles tell Jesus that they are concerned on account of the damned; Jesus compliments them as the righteous too are anxious about sinners, and Jesus promises to hear requests concerning them. This particular theological idea, of

654-424: A limit on the number of resurrection appearances, effectively excluding Paul's conversion experience from the bona fide resurrection appearances. Zwiep argues that Jesus was originally believed to have been exalted with his ascension to heaven and seated at the right hand of God with his resurrection until the late first century where he argues the exaltation had been separated from the resurrection, and moved to

763-522: A literal reading of the ascension-stories has become problematic, due to the differences between the pre-scientific cosmology of the times of Jesus, and the scientific worldview that leaves no place for a Heaven above earth. Theologian James Dunn describes the Ascension as at best a puzzle and at worst an embarrassment for an age that no longer conceives of a physical Heaven located above the Earth. Similarly, in

872-519: A number of statements of prophecy, albeit some appear to be vaticinium ex eventu ("predictions" of events that already occurred). Notably, the conversion of Paul the Apostle is predicted in Chapter 31. The work also seemingly sets a date for the Second Coming of Jesus ; chapter 17 says it will come "when the hundredth part and the twentieth part is completed" (Coptic) or "when the hundred and fiftieth year

981-563: A reasonably common adjective in Classical Greek. By the Hellenistic period , it began also to be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries , becoming synonymous with the Greek term mysterion . Consequentially, Gnosis often refers to knowledge based on personal experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with

1090-474: A sign of benediction with his right hand. The blessing gesture by Christ with his right hand is directed towards the earthly group below him and signifies that he is blessing the entire Church. In the left hand, he may be holding a Gospel or a scroll, signifying teaching and preaching. The Eastern Orthodox portrayal of the ascension is a major metaphor for the mystical nature of the Church. In many Eastern icons,

1199-409: A single event. Various epistles ( Romans 8:34 , Ephesians 1:19–20 , Colossians 3:1 , Philippians 2:9–11 , 1 Timothy 3:16 , and 1 Peter 3:21–22 ) refer to an ascension without specifying details, seeming, like Luke–Acts and John , to equate it with the post-resurrection "exaltation" of Jesus to the right hand of God. The ascension is detailed in both Luke and Acts, a pair of works ascribed to

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1308-426: A totality constitute the pleroma , the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world. Two of the most commonly paired æons were Christ and Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Christ as her "consort" in A Valentinian Exposition . In Gnostic tradition, the name Sophia (Σοφία, Greek for "wisdom") refers to the final emanation of God, and

1417-854: Is "learned" or "intellectual", such as used by Plato in the comparison of "practical" ( praktikos ) and "intellectual" ( gnostikos ). Plato's use of "learned" is fairly typical of Classical texts. Sometimes employed in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible , the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria who speaks of the "learned" ( gnostikos ) Christian quite often, uses it in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus . Some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean "intellectual", whereas his mention of "the intellectual sect"

1526-446: Is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects. These various groups emphasized personal spiritual knowledge ( gnosis ) above the proto-orthodox teachings, traditions, and authority of religious institutions. Gnostic cosmogony generally presents a distinction between a supreme, hidden God and a malevolent lesser divinity (sometimes associated with

1635-560: Is a specific designation. The term "Gnosticism" does not appear in ancient sources, and was first coined in the 17th century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation , where More used the term "Gnosticisme" to describe the heresy in Thyatira . The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (Greek γνωστικός, "learned", "intellectual") by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe

1744-399: Is a valid or useful historical term, or if it was an artificial category framed by proto-orthodox theologians to target miscellaneous Christian heretics . Gnosis is a feminine Greek noun which means "knowledge" or "awareness." It is often used for personal knowledge compared with intellectual knowledge ( εἴδειν eídein ). A related term is the adjective gnostikos , "cognitive",

1853-510: Is commissioned by the Father] And I heard the voice of the Most High, the father of my LORD as he said to my LORD Christ who will be called Jesus, 'Go out and descend through all the heavens... The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian literary work considered as canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus. Jesus is identified with angel Christology in parable 5, when

1962-526: Is completed" (Ethiopic), implying the Ethiopic manuscript might have been written after 120 years had already passed. It is not entirely clear when Jesus is counting from (his death? his ascension?), but shows that the audience in the second century still expected the Second Coming to be imminent and the advent of the Kingdom of God within the next few decades. The work also "predicts" the rise of Gnosticism in

2071-562: Is identified with the anima mundi or world-soul. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90 AD. In most, if not all, versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive and negative depictions of materiality depend on

2180-568: Is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology . Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language, and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form, since the word appears in the Epistle to the Colossians . Proponents of

2289-639: Is not a secret teaching (it is "written (...) for the whole world") and its content applies universally rather than to one group and that everyone can easily come to learn its content, contradicting the esoteric mysteries popular in Gnosticism. The Parable of the Ten Virgins is repurposed to more directly address Gnosticism in the Epistle of the Apostles. The apostles ask which of the virgins were wise and which were foolish; Jesus replies by saying that "The five wise are Faith and Love and Grace, Peace, and Hope" while

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2398-456: Is presumably to counter docetism , the doctrine that Jesus had been a purely divine being separate from the corrupt mortal world common among Gnosticism, seen in works such as the Book of Thomas the Contender . The work does use a Gnostic-style construction of Jesus's descent through the heavens to Earth, but quickly affirms that he "became flesh" (Chapters 13–14). The resurrected Jesus has

2507-419: Is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. Other names or identifications are Ahriman , El , Satan , and Yahweh . This image of this particular creature is again identified in the Book of Revelation as such: Now in my vision this is how I saw the horses and their riders. They wore red, blue, and yellow breastplates, and

2616-570: Is still being explored. The very few women in most Gnostic literature are portrayed as chaotic, disobedient, and enigmatic. However, the Nag Hammadi texts place women in roles of leadership and heroism. In many Gnostic systems, God is known as the Monad , the One . God is the high source of the pleroma , the region of light. The various emanations of God are called æons. According to Hippolytus , this view

2725-629: The Testament de Notre-Seigneur et de Notre Sauver Jésus-Christ (Testament of Our Lord and Our Savior Jesus Christ), while others such as Francis Watson have called it the Galilean Discourse . Similar to the main work, it features a resurrected Jesus holding a discourse with his disciples and offering prophecies of the future. Original publications Gnosticism Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek : γνωστικός , romanized : gnōstikós , Koine Greek : [ɣnostiˈkos] , 'having knowledge')

2834-516: The Apostles' Creed : "He ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of God the Father almighty." Psalm 110 ( Psalms 110:1 ) played an essential role in this interpretation of Jesus' death and the resurrection appearances: "The Lord said to my Lord, "Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies your footstool." It provided an interpretative frame for Jesus' followers to make sense of his death and

2943-575: The Coptic language from a 4th–5th century manuscript by Carl Schmidt , a German Coptologist . In 1910, the English scholar M. R. James spotted similarities between the initial Coptic translations provided by Schmidt and various translations of unclassified Ethiopic documents; he realized that the Ethiopic manuscripts were likely from the same work as the Coptic manuscript. This Ethiopic language version also

3052-616: The Julian calendar , has a slightly different computation, up to a month later than in the Western tradition. Other denominations, such as the Plymouth Brethren and Quakers , do not celebrate it as they do not adhere to the traditional Christian calendar of feasts. One of the Ascension hymns is Christ fuhr gen Himmel . The Ascension of Jesus has been a frequent subject in Christian art . By

3161-576: The Plymouth Brethren , do not observe the feast. Although the ascension is an important article of faith in Christianity, only Luke and Acts contain direct accounts of it. In the shorter ending of Mark, in Matthew, and in John, it is only implied or alluded to. The Gospels do not picture resurrection and ascension as clearly separated in time. Other New Testament writings also imply resurrection and exaltation as

3270-722: The Synoptics . Gnosticism was a mix of Jewish and early Christian religious ideas. Gnostic writings flourished among certain Christian groups in the Mediterranean world around the second century, when the Fathers of the early Church denounced them as heresy . Efforts to destroy these texts proved largely successful, resulting in the survival of very little writing by Gnostic theologians. Nonetheless, early Gnostic teachers such as Valentinus saw their beliefs as aligned with Christianity. In

3379-476: The Testament of Job ascended heaven following their resurrection from the dead . Non-Jewish readers would have been familiar with the case of the emperor Augustus , whose ascent was witnessed by Senators; Romulus the founder of Rome, who, like Jesus, was taken to heaven in a cloud; the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules); and others. In Christian theology , the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus are

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3488-641: The Virgin Mary is placed at the center of the scene in the earthly part of the depiction, with her hands raised towards Heaven, often accompanied by various Apostles. The upwards-looking depiction of the earthly group matches the Eastern liturgy on the Feast of the Ascension: "Come, let us rise and turn our eyes and thoughts high ..." The traditional site of the ascension is Mount Olivet (the "Mount of Olives"), on which

3597-431: The biblical deity Yahweh ) who is responsible for creating the material universe . Consequently, Gnostics considered material existence flawed or evil, and held the principal element of salvation to be direct knowledge of the hidden divinity, attained via mystical or esoteric insight. Many Gnostic texts deal not in concepts of sin and repentance , but with illusion and enlightenment . According to James Dunn ,

3706-480: The gnostikos Valentinus (c.   170) or the Nag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by modern scholarship, although Elaine Pagels called it a "possibility". The Syrian–Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad . From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons . The Demiurge arises among the Aeons and creates the physical world. Divine elements "fall" into

3815-401: The horses’ heads were like heads of lions , and out of their mouths came fire, smoke, and sulfur. By these three plagues of fire, smoke, and sulfur that came out of their mouths a third of the human race was killed. For the power of the horses is in their mouths and in their tails; for their tails are like snakes , with heads that inflict harm." This is corroborated in the article above quoting

3924-646: The nativity , resurrection , and miracles of Jesus . The remainder of the text recounts a vision and dialog between Jesus and the apostles , consisting of about sixty questions, and 41 short chapters. It closes with a brief account of the Ascension of Jesus . The text itself appears to be based on parts of the New Testament, in particular the Gospel of John , as well as the Apocalypse of Peter , Epistle of Barnabas , and Shepherd of Hermas , all of which were considered inspired by various groups or individuals during periods of

4033-436: The 11 apostles after Jesus's resurrection but before his ascension, but it rapidly sheds this structure, and the work as a whole cannot be accurately described as an epistle. Rather, the work becomes a gospel that describes the life and miracles of Jesus, then becomes an apocalypse where the risen Christ tells of revelations of hidden truths in response to questions from the disciples. The first 10 chapters begin by describing

4142-553: The 140s". Francis Watson dates it to around 170, after the Antonine plague , due to the references to death and disease as a sign of the end times. The work does not seem to assume a sharply differentiated or rigid church hierarchy, treats both gentile and Jewish Christians as part of the same group, and expects a 2nd-century return of Jesus: all signs of a 2nd century origin. Most scholars favor an origin of Roman Egypt ; other possibilities include Asia Minor and Roman Syria . The work

4251-464: The 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups. Dillon notes that Gnosticism raises questions about the development of early Christianity . The Christian heresiologists , most notably Irenaeus , regarded Gnosticism as a Christian heresy. Modern scholarship notes that early Christianity

4360-498: The 5th-century sage Ezra ; Baruch the companion of the prophet Jeremiah (from a work called 2 Baruch , in which Baruch is promised he will ascend to heaven after forty days); Levi the ancestor of priests; the Teacher of Righteousness from the Qumran community; the prophet Elijah (from 2 Kings ); Moses , who was deified on entering heaven; and the children of Job , who according to

4469-405: The 6th century, the iconography of the Ascension had been established and by the 9th century, ascension scenes were being depicted on domes of churches. The Rabbula Gospels (c. 586) include some of the earliest images of the ascension. Many ascension scenes have two parts, an upper (Heavenly) part and a lower (earthly) part. The ascending Christ may be carrying a resurrection cross-banner or make

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4578-467: The Ascension is a major feast day of the Christian liturgical year , along with the Passion , Easter , Pentecost , and Christmas . Ascension Day is traditionally celebrated on the sixth Thursday after Easter Sunday, the fortieth day from Easter day, although some Catholic provinces have moved the observance to the following Sunday to facilitate the obligation to attend Mass. Saint Jerome held that it

4687-459: The Church administered and prescribed the correct behavior for Christians, while in Gnosticism it was the internalised motivation that was important. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora describes a general asceticism, based on the moral inclination of the individual. For example, ritualistic behavior was not seen to possess as much importance as any other practice, unless it was based on a personal, internal motivation. The role women played in Gnosticism

4796-463: The Creed )." The cosmology of the author of Luke–Acts reflects the beliefs of his age, which envisioned a three-part cosmos with the heavens above, an Earth centered on Jerusalem in the middle, and the underworld below. Heaven was separated from the Earth by the firmament , the visible sky, a solid inverted bowl where God's palace sat on pillars in the celestial sea. Humans looking up from Earth saw

4905-554: The Gnostic Christian tradition, Christ is seen as a divine being which has taken human form in order to lead humanity back to recognition of its own divine nature. However, Gnosticism is not a single standardized system, and the emphasis on direct experience allows for a wide variety of teachings, including distinct currents such as Valentinianism and Sethianism . In the Persian Empire , Gnostic ideas spread as far as China via

5014-573: The Gnostic emphasis on an inherent difference between flesh and spirit represented a significant departure from the teachings of the Historical Jesus and his earliest followers. Some scholars say Gnosticism may contain historical information about Jesus from the Gnostic viewpoint, though the majority predominantly conclude that apocryphal sources, Gnostic or not, are later than the canonical ones and that many, such as Thomas , depends on or harmonizes

5123-653: The Gnostics. Examples of this genre (sometimes called a "Dialogue Gospel") within Gnosticism include the Gospel of Mary , the Apocryphon of John , the Sophia of Jesus Christ , and the Pistis Sophia . However, the Epistle of the Apostles repurposes this genre to use against Gnosticism, where the resurrected Jesus affirms early orthodox Christian belief on the nature of his flesh and the coming resurrection. The text also affirms that it

5232-661: The Godhead emanates two savior aeons, Christ and the Holy Spirit ; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to teach humans how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the pleroma. The term demiurge derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term dēmiourgos , δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker". This figure is also called "Yaldabaoth", Samael ( Aramaic : sæmʻa-ʼel , "blind god"), or "Saklas" ( Syriac : sækla , "the foolish one"), who

5341-813: The Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples. Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic , finds Palestinian and Samaritan Aramaic influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with Jews". In 1966, at the Congress of Median, Buddhologist Edward Conze noted phenomenological commonalities between Mahayana Buddhism and Gnosticism, in his paper Buddhism and Gnosis , following an early suggestion put forward by Isaac Jacob Schmidt . The influence of Buddhism in any sense on either

5450-431: The Nag Hammadi texts. Since the 1990s, the category of "Gnosticism" has come under increasing scrutiny from scholars. One such issue is whether Gnosticism ought to be considered one form of early Christianity , an interreligious phenomenon, or an independent religion. Going further than this, other contemporary scholars such as Michael Allen Williams, Karen Leigh King , and David G. Robertson contest whether "Gnosticism"

5559-490: The Son of Man" ( John 3:13 ); "What if you [the disciples] were to see the Son of Man ascending where he was before?" ( John 6:62 ); and to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection, "Do not hold me, for I have not yet ascended to my Father..." ( John 20:17 ). In the first and second Jesus is claiming to be the apocalyptic "one like a Son of Man" of Daniel 7 ; the last has mystified commentators – why should Mary be prohibited from touching

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5668-493: The aeons are the various emanations of the superior God or Monad. Beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic aeon Barbelo , the first emanated being, various interactions with the Monad occur which result in the emanation of successive pairs of aeons, often in male–female pairings called syzygies . The numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty. The aeons as

5777-471: The angel Christology of some early Christians, Darrell Hannah notes: [Some] early Christians understood the pre-incarnate Christ, ontologically, as an angel. This "true" angel Christology took many forms and may have appeared as early as the late First Century, if indeed this is the view opposed in the early chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews. The Elchasaites , or at least Christians influenced by them, paired

5886-412: The apostles place their fingers in the print of the nails, in the spear wound in his side, and checking for footprints; this is to "prove" that the future resurrection will be a fleshly and physical one. The story of the footprints is also in direct contradiction to a story in the docetic Acts of John where the disciples realize that Jesus does not leave any footprints. The Epistle of the Apostles makes

5995-555: The ascending Jesus is often shown blessing an earthly group below him, signifying the entire Church. The Feast of the Ascension is celebrated on the 40th day of Easter , always a Thursday; some Orthodox traditions have a different calendar up to a month later than in the Western tradition. The Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Communion continue to observe the Feast of the Ascension. Certain Nonconformist churches, such as

6104-910: The author mentions a Son of God, as a virtuous man filled with a Holy "pre-existent spirit". In the 1880s Gnostic connections with neo-Platonism were proposed. Ugo Bianchi, who organised the Congress of Messina of 1966 on the origins of Gnosticism, also argued for Orphic and Platonic origins. Gnostics borrowed significant ideas and terms from Platonism, using Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God). Both Sethian Gnostics and Valentinian Gnostics seem to have been influenced by Plato , Middle Platonism , and Neo-Pythagoreanism academies or schools of thought. Both schools attempted "an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation" with late antique philosophy, and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists , including Plotinus. Early research into

6213-414: The author was denouncing. Regardless of whether the targets were Gnostics or not, the work includes passages that make clear that simply being a Christian is insufficient for salvation. Various passages threaten severe punishment on Christians who diverge from Jesus's teachings or possess great wealth. The Epistle of the Apostles includes polemics emphasizing the physical nature of the resurrection. This

6322-482: The broad category of Gnosticism, viewing materiality as being inherently evil, or as merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows. In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge. According to Origen 's Contra Celsum , a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created

6431-544: The capricious nature of the form (calling itself many different names) and of Gnosticism founder, Simon Magus, whom in the Biblical Narrative the Acts of the Apostles is quoted as being a magician or sorcerer able to perform great tasks with his mouth but not with the Holy Spirit of YHWH the same Spirit of Yeshuah of Nazareth and Simon Peter, Simon Magus' opponent. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within

6540-581: The development of Gnosticism: During the first period, three types of tradition developed: The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths, and the Persian Empire . It continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, but decline also set in during the third century, due to a growing aversion from the Nicene Church, and

6649-481: The divine. In most Gnostic systems, the sufficient cause of salvation is this "knowledge of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. It is an inward "knowing", comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus ( neoplatonism ), and differs from proto-orthodox Christian views. Gnostics are "those who are oriented toward knowledge and understanding – or perception and learning – as a particular modality for living". The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts

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6758-432: The early church. The whole text seems to have been intended as a refutation of the teachings of Cerinthus, although "Simon" (probably Simon Magus ) is also mentioned. The content heavily criticizes Gnosticism. In particular the text uses the style of a discourse and series of questions with a vision of Jesus that was popular among Gnostic groups, wherein the apparition of Jesus would reveal new secret teachings propounded by

6867-623: The economic and cultural deterioration of the Roman Empire. Conversion to Islam, and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though Mandaean communities still exist in Iraq, Iran and diaspora communities. Gnostic and pseudo-gnostic ideas became influential in some of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of

6976-455: The epistle identifies "Peter" and "Cephas" as two different apostles. While some early traditions did hold that they were separate people, most later Christians were of the opinion that they were two names for the same person, as many Jews of the era had dual names (Cephas being his Aramaic name, Peter his Greek name). The author doesn't seem to place Peter as the primary apostle either, listing him third rather than first, and including Peter in

7085-725: The extinguishing of the Paschal candle , and an all-night vigil; white is the liturgical colour. The feast was retained at the Protestant Reformation . It continues to be observed in Lutheran , Anglican , Methodist , and most Reformed churches. Most of the Eastern Christian tradition ( Eastern and Oriental Orthodox and some Eastern Catholic Churches, and the Church of the East ), based on

7194-400: The floor of Heaven, made of clear blue lapis-lazuli ( Exodus 24:9–10 ), as was God's throne ( Ezekiel 1:26 ). According to Dunn, "the typical mind-set and worldview of the time conditioned what was actually seen and how the recording of such seeings was conceptualized," and "departure into heaven could only be conceived in terms of 'being taken up ', a literal ascension." In modern times,

7303-408: The form of the monarchic episcopate , the creed , and the canon of holy books. On the other hand, Larry Hurtado argues that proto-orthodox Christianity was rooted into first-century Christianity : Ascension of Jesus The Ascension of Jesus ( anglicized from the Vulgate Latin : ascensio Iesu , lit.   'ascent of Jesus') is the Christian belief, reflected in

7412-521: The form we now call Gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era." Many heads of Gnostic schools were identified as Jewish Christians by Church Fathers, and Hebrew words and names of God were applied in some gnostic systems. The cosmogonic speculations among Christian Gnostics had partial origins in Maaseh Breshit and Maaseh Merkabah . This thesis is most notably put forward by Gershom Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006). Scholem detected Jewish gnosis in

7521-458: The highest and most important of the first created archangels, a view similar in many respects to Hermas' equation of Christ with Michael. Finally, a possible exegetical tradition behind the Ascension of Isaiah and attested by Origen's Hebrew master, may witness to yet another angel Christology, as well as an angel Pneumatology. The pseudepigraphical Christian text Ascension of Isaiah identifies Jesus with angel Christology: [The Lord Christ

7630-566: The imagery of merkabah mysticism , which can also be found in certain Gnostic documents. Quispel sees Gnosticism as an independent Jewish development, tracing its origins to Alexandrian Jews , to which group Valentinus was also connected. Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God. Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as "the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism". Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism . Research into

7739-465: The major Christian creeds and confessional statements, that Jesus ascended to Heaven after his resurrection , where he was exalted as Lord and Christ , sitting at the right hand of God . The Gospels and other New Testament writings imply resurrection and exaltation as a single event. The ascension is "more assumed than described," and only Luke and Acts contain direct accounts of it, but with different chronologies. In Christian art ,

7848-465: The male Christ with the female Holy Spirit, envisioning both as two gigantic angels. Some Valentinian Gnostics supposed that Christ took on an angelic nature and that he might be the Saviour of angels. The author of the Testament of Solomon held Christ to be a particularly effective "thwarting" angel in the exorcism of demons. The author of De Centesima and Epiphanius' " Ebionites " held Christ to have been

7957-509: The material realm, and are latent in human beings. Redemption from the fall occurs when the humans obtain Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the "radical dualist" systems of Manichaeism to the "mitigated dualism" of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of

8066-480: The most important events, and a foundation of the Christian faith. The early followers of Jesus believed that God had vindicated Jesus after his death, as reflected in the stories about his resurrection, ascension, and exaltation. The early followers of Jesus soon believed that Jesus was raised as first of the dead , taken into Heaven, and exalted , taking the seat at the right hand of God in Heaven, as stated in

8175-521: The myth's depictions of Sophia's actions. Sophia in this highly patriarchal narrative is described as unruly and disobedient, which is due to her bringing a creation of chaos into the world. The creation of the Demiurge was an act done without her counterpart's consent and because of the predefined hierarchy between the two of them, this action contributed to the narrative that she was unruly and disobedient. Sophia , emanating without her partner, resulted in

8284-492: The name did not catch on. Schmidt used the Latin Epistola Apostolorum to name the text (with an 'o' rather than a 'u'), despite the work not having a strong affinity for Latin; that title has proven more popular in later works, and it is frequently translated into whatever language the author is using (Epistle of the Apostles, L'Épître des apôtres , etc.). The text is initially framed as an open letter from

8393-598: The origin of Mandaean Gnosticism in Mazdean (Zoroastrianism) Zurvanism , in conjunction with ideas from the Aramaic Mesopotamian world. However, scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph , Mark Lidzbarski , Rudolf Macúch , Ethel S. Drower , James F. McGrath , Charles G. Häberl , Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley , and Şinasi Gündüz argue for a Judean–Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that

8502-619: The origins of Gnosticism proposed Persian origins or influences, spreading to Europe and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism , and Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931) situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia. Carsten Colpe (b. 1929) has analyzed and criticised the Iranian hypothesis of Reitzenstein, showing that many of his hypotheses are untenable. Nevertheless, Geo Widengren (1907–1996) argued for

8611-506: The origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature . Within early Christianity, the teachings of Paul the Apostle and John the Evangelist may have been a starting point for Gnostic ideas, with a growing emphasis on the opposition between flesh and spirit, the value of charisma, and the disqualification of the Jewish law. The mortal body belonged to

8720-433: The penultimate prophet of Islam, was not crucified or resurrected but his body directly ascended. Russian skeptic Kirill Eskov in his "Nature"-praised work The Gospel of Afranius argues that it was politically prudent for the local Roman administration to strengthen Jesus's influence by spreading rumors about his miracles via active measures , with this story originating as a well-crafted deliberate lie. The Feast of

8829-513: The production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder"), who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts. This creature is concealed outside the pleroma; in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The demiurge is responsible for the creation of humankind; trapping elements of the pleroma stolen from Sophia inside human bodies. In response,

8938-457: The related movement Manichaeism , while Mandaeism , which is the only surviving Gnostic religion from antiquity, is found in Iraq , Iran and diaspora communities. Jorunn Buckley posits that the early Mandaeans may have been among the first to formulate what would go on to become Gnosticism within the community of early followers of Jesus. For centuries, most scholarly knowledge about Gnosticism

9047-484: The resurrection appearances. This understanding is summarized by the theologian Justus Knecht who wrote: "Our Lord went up Body and Soul into heaven in the sight of His apostles, by His own power, to take possession of His glory, and to be our Advocate and Mediator in heaven with the Father. He ascended as Man, as Head of the redeemed, and has prepared a dwelling in heaven for all those who follow in His steps (Sixth article of

9156-602: The righteous being able to pray sinners into heaven, was later condemned during the Origenist Controversies , but seems to have been common in 2nd century Christianity. In the gospel portion recounting Jesus's life, it is said that he suffered during the days of Pontius Pilate and Herod Archelaus . Archelaus was removed as ethnarch (governor, client-king) in 6 CE, however, and was dead by 18 CE - far earlier than Pilate's term as procurator. The work likely confused him with Herod Antipas . While not exactly an error,

9265-503: The risen but not yet ascended Christ, while Thomas is later invited to do so? The longer ending of Mark describes an ascension, but is a later addition to the original version of that gospel. Ascension stories were fairly common around the time of Jesus and the evangelists, signifying the deification of a noteworthy person (usually a Roman Emperor), and in Judaism as an indication of divine approval. Another function of heavenly ascent

9374-421: The same author, Luke the Evangelist : Luke and Acts appear to describe the same event but present quite different chronologies, the gospel placing it on the same day as the resurrection and Acts forty days afterwards; various proposals have been put forward to resolve the contradiction, but none have been found satisfactory. According to Dunn, the author of Acts separated the resurrection and ascension to put

9483-494: The same. Others believed Jesus was divine, although did not have a physical body, reflected in the later Docetist movement. Among the Mandaeans , Jesus was considered a mšiha kdaba or " false messiah " who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist . Still other traditions identify Mani , the founder of Manichaeism, and Seth , third son of Adam and Eve , as salvific figures. Three periods can be discerned in

9592-417: The scholar who rediscovered the work, believed that the work was more intended to shore up the faith of non-Gnostics against conversion to Gnosticism than attack Gnosticism directly. Later scholars have generally not agreed with such a distinction, as the method which the work confirms early catholic views was precisely by refuting Gnosticism. A dissenting view is offered by Francis Watson , who argues that

9701-789: The school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis "the heresy called Learned (gnostic)". The origins of Gnosticism are obscure and still disputed. Gnosticism is largely influenced by platonism and its theory of forms . The proto-orthodox Christian groups called Gnostics a heresy of Christianity, but according to the modern scholars the theology's origin is closely related to Jewish sectarian milieus and early Christian sects. Some scholars debate Gnosticism's origins as having roots in Buddhism , due to similarities in beliefs, but ultimately, its origins are unknown. Some scholars prefer to speak of "gnosis" when referring to first-century ideas that later developed into Gnosticism, and to reserve

9810-465: The six that follow: Iao, Sabaoth , Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos, and Horaios. Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion. Other Gnostic concepts are: Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth, while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained enlightenment through gnosis and taught his disciples to do

9919-602: The story of the Incredulity of Thomas as another skeptical disciple offered a chance to prove the resurrected Jesus is real. In the Ethiopic manuscripts discovered, many of them are codices which start with an Ethipioc version of the Testamentum Domini , and then feature a bridge section, likely originally composed in Ethiopic, that connects the Testamentum Domini with the Epistle of the Apostles. Guerrier called it

10028-635: The term "Gnosticism" for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the second century. According to James M. Robinson , no gnostic texts clearly pre-date Christianity, and "pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all." Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish Christian origins, originating in the late first century AD in nonrabbinical Jewish sects and early Christian sects. Ethel S. Drower adds, "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in

10137-492: The third century, the ascension-story was read by Origen in a mystical way, as an "ascension of the mind rather than of the body," representing one of two basic ascension theologies. The real problem is the fact that Jesus is both present and absent, an ambiguity which points to a "something more" to which the Eucharist gives entry. The same doctrine takes on another meaning for Muslims : most Islamic scholars hold that Jesus,

10246-475: The two principles is in some way inferior to the other. In qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism , expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner. Gnostics tended toward asceticism , especially in their sexual and dietary practice. In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behavior. In normative early Christianity,

10355-474: The view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels, view the reference in Colossians as a term that has to be interpreted in a gnostic sense. The Supreme Light or Consciousness descends through a series of stages, gradations, worlds, or hypostases, becoming progressively more material and embodied. In time it will turn around to return to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge and contemplation. In many Gnostic systems,

10464-622: The village of Bethany sits. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great in 312 AD, early Christians honored the ascension of Christ in a cave on the Mount, and by 384 the ascension was venerated on the present site, uphill from the cave. Around the year 390 a wealthy Roman woman named Poimenia financed construction of the original church called " Eleona Basilica " ( elaion in Greek means "olive garden", from elaia "olive tree", and has an oft-mentioned similarity to eleos meaning "mercy"). This church

10573-480: The virgins who are shut out of the wedding are named "Knowledge ( Gnosis ) and Wisdom ( Sophia ), Obedience, Forbearance, and Mercy." (Coptic version) Jesus then goes on to predict that the false Christians who fell asleep "will remain outside the kingdom and the fold of the shepherd and his sheep" and will be devoured by wolves. In other words, Gnostics will not be granted entrance into the Kingdom of God . Carl Schmidt,

10682-473: The words of McGill University's Douglas Farrow, in modern times the ascension is seen less as the climax of the mystery of Christ than as "something of an embarrassment in the age of the telescope and the space probe," an "idea [that] conjures up an outdated cosmology." Yet, according to Dunn, a sole focus on this disparity is beside the real importance of Jesus' ascension, namely the resurrection and subsequent exaltation of Jesus. Farrow notes that, already in

10791-427: The work does not have an anti-heretical or anti-Gnostic agenda. In this view, Simon Magus and Cerinthus are simply archetypical villains who could serve as fictional antagonists-within-the-Church to any Christian story of the era, and the writer may well have not known any specifics of Gnosticism or Gnostic doctrines. Similarly, while there are predictions of false teachers who follow evil and desire glory, this could be

10900-538: The world of inferior, worldly powers (the archons ), and only the spirit or soul could be saved. The term gnostikos may have acquired a deeper significance here. Alexandria was of central importance for the birth of Gnosticism. The Christian ecclesia (i. e. congregation, church) was of Jewish–Christian origin, but also attracted Greek members, and various strands of thought were available, such as "Judaic apocalypticism , speculation on divine wisdom , Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic mystery religions ." Regarding

11009-470: Was as a mode of divine revelation reflected in Greco-Roman, early Jewish, and early Christian literary sources, in which particular individuals with prophetic or revelatory gifts are said to have experienced a heavenly journey during which they learned cosmic and divine secrets. Figures familiar to Jews would have included Enoch (from the Book of Genesis and a popular non-Biblical work called 1 Enoch );

11118-466: Was destroyed by Sassanid Persians in 614. It was subsequently rebuilt, destroyed, and rebuilt again by the Crusaders . This final church was later destroyed by Muslims, leaving only a 12×12 meter octagonal structure (called a martyrium —"memorial"—or " edicule ") that remains to this day. The site was ultimately acquired by two emissaries of Saladin in the year 1198 and has remained in the possession of

11227-675: Was diverse, and Christian orthodoxy only settled in the 4th   century, when the Roman Empire declined and Gnosticism lost its influence. Gnostics and proto-orthodox Christians shared some terminology. Initially, they were hard to distinguish from each other. According to Walter Bauer, "heresies" may well have been the original form of Christianity in many regions. This theme was further developed by Elaine Pagels, who argues that "the proto-orthodox church found itself in debates with gnostic Christians that helped them to stabilize their own beliefs." According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in

11336-554: Was inspired by the Pythagoreans , who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad , which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point , begetting lines , etc. Pleroma (Greek πλήρωμα, "fullness") refers to the totality of God's powers. The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons . Jesus

11445-460: Was limited to the anti-heretical writings of early Christian figures such as Irenaeus of Lyons and Hippolytus of Rome . There was a renewed interest in Gnosticism after the 1945 discovery of Egypt's Nag Hammadi library , a collection of rare early Christian and Gnostic texts, including the Gospel of Thomas and the Apocryphon of John . Elaine Pagels has noted the influence of sources from Hellenistic Judaism , Zoroastrianism , and Platonism on

11554-409: Was more complete, including sections that were too damaged to read in the Coptic manuscripts. A French-Ethiopic edition was published in 1913, and a combined German-Coptic-Ethiopic work published by Schmidt in 1919. The fragmentary Coptic manuscript is believed to be translated directly from the original Greek. The Ethiopic was also probably directly translated from Greek, although some have proposed it

11663-588: Was of apostolic origin, but in fact the Ascension was originally part of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit ), and developed as a separate celebration only slowly from the late 4th century onward. In the Catholic tradition it begins with a three-day "rogation" to ask for God's mercy, and the feast itself includes a procession of torches and banners symbolising Christ's journey to the Mount of Olives and entry into Heaven,

11772-462: Was seemingly not widely distributed; no surviving ancient Christian writings seem to refer to it, suggesting its circulation was limited. The work was lost to most of the world; copies were still produced and maintained in certain Ethiopian monasteries as late as the 16th century, but it was a minor and obscure work there, and completely unknown elsewhere. In 1895, major portions of it were discovered in

11881-503: Was translated from a Coptic or Arabic version instead. M. R. James also identified that one leaf of a Latin palimpsest , dating to the 5th century, was derived from the same text. The original title of the work, if any, is unknown. The 1913 French-Ethiopic edition called it the Le Testament en Galilée de Notre-Seigneur Jésus-Christ (The Testament in Galilee of Our Lord Jesus Christ), but

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