115-425: Epicureanism is a system of philosophy developed by Epicurus ca. 300 BCE. Epicurean or epicure may also refer to: Epicureanism Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BCE based upon the teachings of Epicurus , an ancient Greek philosopher . Epicurus was an atomist and materialist , following in the steps of Democritus . His materialism led him to religious skepticism and
230-583: A (non-lacto) vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and low bone mineral density . A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at the femoral neck and lumbar spine compared to omnivores. A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a lacto-vegetarian diet exhibited normal growth and development. A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children. Vegetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to help people with type 2 diabetes . Meta-analyses have reported
345-419: A collection of writings by Epicurus that explain the values and beliefs of Ancient Epicurian philosophy. Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat ( red meat , poultry , seafood , insects , and the flesh of any other animal ). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter . A person who practices vegetarianism
460-639: A common man's virtues. Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on moral vegetarianism or veganism. Vegetarianism in ancient India Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who are (held to be) wicked men, and live apart from others. ... In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in
575-439: A desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged. Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and of death , seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life. When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean
690-500: A family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation. Epicureanism rejects immortality . It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death
805-524: A family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family. Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice. However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics. The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have
920-483: A few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%, and 58% of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet. Vitamin B 12 is not generally present in plants but
1035-458: A form of strict vegetarianism . It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period and, prior to the coinage of the word "vegetarianism", vegetarians were referred to in English as " Pythagoreans ". Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by
1150-454: A general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism , and its main opponent later became Stoicism . It is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal. However, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from hedonism as colloquially understood. Following
1265-732: A good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body. Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates. See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages, the Vegetarian Resource Group and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on
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#17328584253481380-693: A list of the Principal Doctrines of Epicureanism; however, there are independent attestations of his ideas from his later disciples. The epic poem De rerum natura (Latin for "On the Nature of Things") by Lucretius presents the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism in one unified work. Many Epicurean texts have also been found on scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum , mostly works written by
1495-558: A living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Shakyamuni Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant , horse , dog , snake , lion, tiger, leopard, bear , and hyena flesh ) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when
1610-456: A manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red. The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move. The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true, and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions. When we form judgments about things ( hupolepsis ), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information. For example, if someone sees
1725-587: A mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-range farming or the consumption of game (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat. Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct, as do some sects of Hinduism . Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, but Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate
1840-578: A means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things. According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing. The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive. We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses. The concept of "presentational applications of
1955-509: A purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals, both he and the Universal House of Justice , the governing body of the Baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼí practice and that Baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs. Theravadins in general eat meat. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know"
2070-595: A reduced risk in all-cause mortality in vegetarians. A 2017 review found a lower mortality (−25%) from ischemic heart disease. Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids , but relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B 12 . Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens , leafy greens , tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fiber, folic acid , vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of
2185-669: A reduced risk of death from ischemic heart disease and from cerebrovascular disease among vegetarians. Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association with depression and anxiety , particularly among people under 26 years old. Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety. The American Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders , indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder". A 2012 study found
2300-501: A risk factor for several health disorders, including anemia , neurological deficits , gastrointestinal problems, platelet disorders, and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases . The recommended daily dietary intake of B 12 in the United States and Canada is 0.4 mcg (ages 0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female). While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B 12
2415-403: A smaller subsection of the substance. Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways. Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other. When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object. When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at
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#17328584253482530-663: A suggestion had been made. In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism , Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat. Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors of East Asian Buddhism ) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat, and traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well. Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret
2645-418: A tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion. Epicurus is said to have proposed three criteria of truth : sensations ( aisthêsis ), preconceptions ( prolepsis ), and feelings ( pathê ). A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of
2760-423: A variety of plant sources are available and consumed. Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli,
2875-689: A vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists , the Rastafari movement , the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas . Sikhism does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet. While there are no dietary restrictions in the Baháʼí Faith , `Abdu'l-Bahá , the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains
2990-519: A vegetarian diet. A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life. Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people. Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and various European countries, confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as
3105-426: A vegetarian or vegan diet. Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight. Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of vitamin D. For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, vitamin D supplementation may be necessary. Vitamin D 2 , or ergocalciferol
3220-641: A vitamin D 2 supplement according to study. For example, vitamin D 2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable. By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms, or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested. Choline
3335-530: A way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include: Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society , which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh. Consumption of eggs is not considered to be a part of a vegetarian diet in India, as egg is an animal product that gives birth to
3450-484: Is Philodemus of Gadara 's basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of the doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: Don't fear god, Don't worry about death; What is good is easy to get, and What is terrible is easy to endure. Three letters of Epicurus are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Epicurus' Letter to Herodotus (not
3565-458: Is a clear and direct perception of that object. An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time. When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts. It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about
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3680-599: Is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans , cashews , hempseed , kidney beans , broccoli , lentils , oatmeal , raisins , jaggery , spinach , cabbage , lettuce, black-eyed peas , soybeans , many breakfast cereals , sunflower seeds , chickpeas , tomato juice , tempeh , molasses , thyme , and whole-wheat bread . The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron. Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and
3795-486: Is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet. With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism an ideology and a social movement . Ethical reasons for choosing vegetarianism vary and are usually predicated on the interests of non-human animals . In many societies, controversies and debates have arisen over
3910-421: Is a summary of his ethical teachings written in the epistolary literary style, and addressed to a student. It addresses theology, the hierarchies of desires, how to carry choices and avoidances in order to achieve net pleasure, and other aspects of Epicurean ethics . The Epicurea is a collection of texts, fragments, and testimonies by Epicurus that was collected by Hermann Usener in 1887. This work features
4025-606: Is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree. He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other. The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just. He gave his own unique version of the ethic of reciprocity , which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely
4140-463: Is found in fungus (except alfalfa which is a plantae ) and created from viosterol , which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activates ergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as a sterol from ergot ). Any UV -irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D 2 . Human bioavailability of vitamin D 2 from vitamin D 2 -enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from
4255-649: Is in microgram amounts, deficiency of the vitamin through strict practice of a vegetarian diet without supplementation can increase the risk of several chronic diseases. Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy , walnuts , pumpkin seeds, canola oil , kiwifruit , hempseed , algae , chia seed , flaxseed , echium seed and leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach , cabbage and purslane . Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Olives (and olive oil ) are another important plant source of unsaturated fatty acids. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid which
4370-485: Is known as a vegetarian . Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient animal life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental , cultural, aesthetic , economic , taste-related , or relate to other personal preferences . There are many variations of
4485-441: Is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight. The Epicureans believed that atoms were unchanging because the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species, but that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else
4600-410: Is naturally found in foods of animal origin. Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B 12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from manufactured fortified foods (including plant-based products and breakfast cereals ) and dietary supplements. A strict vegan diet avoiding consumption of all animal products risks vitamin B 12 deficiency, which can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia ,
4715-855: Is needed for necessities, use your own choice as you wish. It is sure difficult to imagine, however, that none of these would be a part of sex because sex never benefitted anyone. In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful. Not only will controlling one's desires bring about aponia , as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about ataraxia because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway. The Epicureans divide desires into three classes: natural and necessary, natural but not necessary, and vain and empty: If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach aponia and ataraxia and thereby
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4830-518: Is not a sufficient cause. Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards. Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic. Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider
4945-519: Is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us." From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the Roman Empire . Epicureanism does not deny
5060-443: Is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans. Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress. of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as
5175-410: Is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the realist position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the idealist position). The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality. However,
5290-466: Is the name of a philosophical treatise in 37 books consisting of lectures written by Epicurus, which can be considered his main work, however, it has mostly been lost. Some excerpts have survived compiled from burnt papyri scrolls found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum . Most of the surviving papyri are kept in the National Library of Naples . Important parts of Book II are preserved in
5405-494: Is the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change. Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense. According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure. Katastematic pleasure is the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain. Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as
5520-453: Is the second letter preserved by Diogenes Laertius in The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. In Letter to Pythocles, Epicurus treats the things for which there is uncertainty in how they occur. His train of thought is explicated through meteorological phenomena: various weather events as well as celestial phenomena in space such as asteroids, the creation and destruction of cosmoi, and
5635-442: Is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards. The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, The Hellenistic Philosophers , in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position. While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time. On Nature ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ φύσεως )
5750-643: Is typically not specifically addressed. Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened with bone char , cheeses that use animal rennet ( enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones, and connective tissue ), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar ) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon , while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients. In
5865-633: The British Museum . Since most of the 37 books "On Nature" are lost, the Principal Doctrines and Epicurus' Letters to Herodotus, Menoeceus, and Pythocles are the most authoritative writings on Epicureanism. Similarly, Lucretius' poem De rerum natura probably follows Epicurus' work. The Principal Doctrines are forty authoritative conclusions set up as official doctrines by Epicurus, Metrodorus of Lampsacus , Hermarchus of Mitilene and Polyaenus of Lampsacus . The Principal Doctrines exemplify
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#17328584253485980-673: The Catiline conspiracy where he spoke out against the Stoic Cato . His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus , was also an adept of the school. In the 2nd century CE, comedian Lucian of Samosata and wealthy promoter of philosophy Diogenes of Oenoanda were prominent Epicureans. By the late third century CE, however, there was little trace of its existence. With growing dominance of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism , and later, Christianity , Epicureanism declined. In his letter to Herodotus , Epicurus presented three principles as to
6095-674: The Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus , Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers generally withdrew from politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions that would conflict with their pursuit of virtue and peace of mind. Few writings by Epicurus have survived. Diogenes Laërtius preserves three letters written by Epicurus, as well as
6210-504: The Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria ), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese. In Japan in 675, the Emperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in
6325-633: The Renaissance , becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom; Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay , though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union , an association of the national societies,
6440-682: The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services In Western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat , cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre , magnesium , potassium , folate , vitamins C and E , and phytochemicals . Studies have shown that
6555-546: The precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots. Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons. The Council of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of
6670-657: The 21st century, 90% of rennet and chymosin used in cheesemaking are derived from industrial fermentation processes, which satisfy both kosher and halal requirements. Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet, as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish, or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat, while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh. In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian". These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as
6785-579: The 9th century BCE, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings. Parshwanatha and Mahavira , the 23rd and 24th tirthankaras in Jainism , respectively, revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism. In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and
6900-591: The Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity , vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish. Moreover, the medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals, porpoises , dolphins , barnacle geese , puffins , and beavers . Vegetarianism re-emerged during
7015-659: The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus or his teacher Zeno of Sidon along with fragments of works by Epicurus himself. Diogenes of Oenoanda , a wealthy Epicurean in the 2nd century CE, had a portico wall inscribed with tenets of the philosophy erected in Oenoanda , Lycia (present day Turkey). Epicureanism flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established in places such as Antioch , Alexandria , Rhodes , and Herculaneum . By
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#17328584253487130-510: The Epicurean philosophers' practice of publishing summaries and outlines of their teachings for easy memorization. However, they are so concise and short that it's difficult to understand them in depth without the context of additional commentaries and writings by ancient sources or by modern Epicurean practitioners, whenever possible.They are often cited as "PDs" in English. Some of the Principal Doctrines are organized into groups and are meant to be studied together. The first four doctrines make up
7245-615: The Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism
7360-578: The Stoic, Platonist and Aristotelian traditions. To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another. That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal. Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics. However Epicureans are not apolitical , it
7475-559: The Tetrapharmakos (Four Cures). PD's 10-13 discuss the Epicurean philosophy of science. PD's 18-21 explain the natural limits of desires and in time, and how the flesh is unable to learn these limits but the mind can. PD's 22-25 deal with the importance of the canon, or the Epicurean standard of truth. PD's 31-38 explain the Epicurean doctrines on justice based on mutual advantage and contractarianism. PD's 39-40 call for an intimate society of friends. Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure",
7590-411: The absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of
7705-427: The act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value
7820-477: The act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished. Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy. Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a social contract , and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in Plato 's Republic . The social contract theory established by Epicureanism
7935-421: The animal suffering or a premature death. To produce milk from dairy cattle , farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption. Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread of factory farming and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without
8050-506: The atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed. Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will. If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect. This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize Democritus ' atomic theory . Epicurean philosophy employs an empirical epistemology, one based on
8165-453: The basis of a satisfying life. The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans. While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means, it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics. Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting
8280-474: The bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be. Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite number of worlds, or cosmoi . Some of these worlds could be vastly different from our own, some quite similar, and all of
8395-416: The body and pleasures of the mind . Pleasures of the body involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present. One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them. Pleasures of the mind involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy,
8510-407: The body. Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures. The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure . Absence of pain, aponia , and lack of disturbance of mind, ataraxia , are two of the katastematic pleasures and often seen as the focal ones to Epicurus . Kinetic pleasure
8625-506: The body. Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher. Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens , mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini . Though calcium can be found in Spinach , swiss chard , beans and beet greens , they are generally not considered to be
8740-444: The comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has. One of the main differences between a vegan and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes
8855-404: The diet is properly planned. Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese. Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet. Broccoli , bok choy , and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in
8970-439: The error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that the image of the oar, that is, the atoms traveling from the oar to the observer's eyes, has been shifted and thus really does arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar. The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents
9085-519: The ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo , such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms , or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras . Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving
9200-415: The existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way – thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution. One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods. The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist
9315-415: The gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it. Instead, the gods live in what is called the metakosmia , or the space between worlds. Contrarily, the idealist (sometimes called the "non-realist position" to avoid confusion) position holds that the gods are just idealized forms of the best human life, and it
9430-423: The greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental. The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of aponia and ataraxia . I learn that your bodily inclination leans most keenly towards sexual intercourse. If you neither violate the laws nor disturb well established morals nor sadden someone close to you, nor strain your body, nor spend what
9545-475: The highest form of happiness. Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed. It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life. The Epicurean understanding of justice was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial. Individuals would not act unjustly even if
9660-459: The historian) was written as an introduction to Epicurean philosophy and method of studying nature. It included the most complete detail of the ancient conversations that led to the development of atomist theory, a doctrine of innumerable worlds, and an explanation of the phenomenon of time that posits an early form of relativism. Epicurus' Letter to Herodotus appears to be a summary of On Nature , books I–XIII. Epicurus' Letter to Pythocles
9775-810: The human body uses to synthesize the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA . EPA and DHA can be obtained directly in high amounts from oily fish, fish oil, or algae oil. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels. . Significantly, for vegetarians, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA). Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as
9890-400: The lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind. These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences. Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of
10005-658: The late 3rd century CE, Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly Neoplatonism ) that were then in the ascent. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the Age of Enlightenment and continues in the modern era. Epicurus taught and gained followers in Mytilene , the capital of the island Lesbos , and then in Lampsacus . In Athens , Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", which later became
10120-433: The later Roman Empire . Deciphered carbonized scrolls obtained from the library at the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum contain a large number of works by Philodemus , a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. Julius Caesar also leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline , during
10235-504: The markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat. — Faxian , Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE), A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated by James Legge ) Among the Hellenes , Egyptians , and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual purification purposes. Vegetarianism
10350-400: The mind" ( phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias ) was said to have been added by later Epicureans. These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge. Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans. Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and
10465-399: The mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods. Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values, seeing pleasure as the chief good in life. Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid
10580-459: The name of Epicurus' school. Its members included Hermarchus , Idomeneus , Colotes , Polyaenus , and Metrodorus . Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly cosmopolitan by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly
10695-445: The nature of the physical world, i.e. that that which exists cannot come into being from that which does not exist, that which is destroyed does not cease to exist, and all that exists now always did exist and always will. The object of these principles was to establish the fact that all that constitutes the world is permanent and unchanging. Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void. Matter
10810-539: The next generation of the relevant species. On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 – A report issued by
10925-622: The nineteenth century during the Meiji Restoration . In China, during the Song dynasty , Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such as beans , gluten , root vegetables and mushrooms to create meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu , seitan and konjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine. Following
11040-464: The oar and has not been distorted in some way. In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" ( enargeia ) of the perceivable thing by closer examination. This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived. Enargeia is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and
11155-400: The observance of Eikas , a monthly social gathering. Some members were also vegetarians as, from slight evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made. The school's popularity grew and it became, along with Stoicism , Platonism , Peripateticism , and Pyrrhonism , one of the dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy , lasting strongly through
11270-634: The paths of planetary bodies through space. In Epicurus' time, long before any modern technological advances such as microscopes or telescopes which allow us to establish greater knowledge of these phenomena, these were all examples of things that, as far as the limits of human knowledge extended, it was impossible to establish certainty with regards to their causes, or how they occurred. Epicurus elaborates on how one may reason regarding such things so as to come to reasonable conclusions without undue certainty, so as to maintain Ataraxia . Epicurus' Letter to Menoeceus
11385-408: The presence or absence of eggs and dairy products in the diet or other reliable B 12 sources, vegetarians may incur a nutritional deficiency . Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients. While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence. The first written use of
11500-423: The raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein . Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to
11615-404: The same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest of the world. This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path. This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as
11730-497: The senses. Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer. All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles. While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in
11845-415: The soul. Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure. As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible. Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: pleasures of
11960-431: The state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear. Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called aponia , and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called ataraxia . While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that
12075-399: The suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure. Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary, desire that should be generally avoided. Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or
12190-578: The term "vegetarian" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet. Historically, 'vegetable' could be used to refer to any type of edible vegetation . Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable ( adjective ) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian ). The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847, although it may have appeared in print before 1847. The earliest occurrences of
12305-478: The term seem to be related to Alcott House —a school on the north side of Ham Common, London —which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves . From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College , and the institution then began to publish its own pamphlet, The Healthian . It provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian". The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from
12420-604: The things that we perceive. Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the Meno regarding learning. Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information. Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning. Our feelings or emotions ( pathê ) are how we perceive pleasure and pain. They are analogous to sensations in that they are
12535-425: The universe would be essentially destroyed. Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void. Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite,
12650-434: The vegetarian diet: an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products , while a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet includes both. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, a vegan diet excludes all animal products , and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes. Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. For vitamin B 12 , depending on
12765-409: The worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void ( metakosmia ). Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts because void is necessary for matter to move. Anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into
12880-619: Was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BCE. The Orphics , a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism. Greek teacher Pythagoras , who promoted the altruistic doctrine of metempsychosis , may have practiced vegetarianism, but is also recorded as eating meat. A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , in which he advocates
12995-445: Was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick. He stated that there are no requirements that Baháʼís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian. `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion. While Shoghi Effendi , the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that
13110-477: Was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns. There are a number of vegetarian diets that exclude or include various foods: Within the " ovo- " groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilized eggs (with balut being an extreme example); however, such distinction
13225-478: Was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism; and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed. The ancient Indian work of the Tirukkuṟaḷ , dated before the 5th century CE, explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing as
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