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137-514: One way is to describe environmental policy is that it comprises two major terms: environment and policy . Environment refers to the physical ecosystems, but can also take into consideration the social dimension (quality of life, health) and an economic dimension (resource management, biodiversity). Policy can be defined as a "course of action or principle adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or individual". Thus, environmental policy tends to focus on problems arising from human impact on

274-712: A basis for ranking the environmental performance of countries, with some characterised as leaders and others as laggards. However, such rankings have been treated with scepticism, not only on methodological grounds but especially because they mean little in terms of the extent to which governments take environmental integration seriously. While it has been noted that, at different stages, some countries have been leaders in some areas of environmental integration, these efforts have not been sustained over time. Natural environment The natural environment or natural world encompasses all biotic and abiotic things occurring naturally , meaning in this case not artificial . The term

411-441: A capacity to grow , respond to stimuli , reproduce and, through natural selection , adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. An ecosystem (also called an environment) is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-organisms ( biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( abiotic ) factors of

548-562: A concern of public policy, as pointed out by Caldwell in 1963. These growing concerns, as well as the growing publicity about environmental problems and accidents, forced governments to introduce or strengthen laws and policies aimed at enhancing environmental protection. Earth Day founder Gaylord Nelson , then a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin, after witnessing the ravages of the 1969 massive oil spill in Santa Barbara, California, became famous for his environmental work. Administrator Ruckelshaus

685-502: A continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. The massive environmental changes of humanity in the Anthropocene have fundamentally effected all natural environments including: climate change , biodiversity loss and pollution from plastic and other chemicals in the air and water . More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness

822-464: A database detailing countries' experiences with their environmental policies. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe , through UNECE, and the OECD's Environmental Performance Reviews , evaluate progress made by its member countries in improving their environmental policies. However, although regulation, taxation and market instruments can be equally (in-) effective, they may differ significantly in

959-637: A decreased food supply for the wildlife in an area. The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen , 21% oxygen , 1% argon , inert gases and carbon dioxide . The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases. The atmosphere includes greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds . Air also contains

1096-405: A focus of public policy. This rationale for environmental policy is broader than that provided by some interpretations based on economic theories. The rationale for governmental involvement in the environment is often attributed to market failure in the form of forces beyond the control of one person, including the free rider problem and the tragedy of the commons . An example of an externality

1233-499: A globally dominant system, this question has become even more important to the future development of environmental policy at the national and international levels. As many analysts of global environmental politics have pointed out, the institutions for developing effective environmental policy at that level are weak and rather ineffective, as demonstrated by accounts of continuing environmental deterioration. Differences in approaches to environmental policy development and design, including

1370-503: A government's approach to policy design, including the choice of instruments. Although many different policy instruments can be identified, and many ways of classifying them have been put forward, very broadly, a minimalist approach distinguishes three kinds or categories of policy instruments: regulation, economic instruments, and normative or "hortatory" approaches. These have also been referred to as "sticks, carrots and sermons". Vedung, based on Majone's classification of power, argues that

1507-846: A legal framework to recognize NGOs and enable them to access more diverse funding sources, high-level support/endorsement from local figureheads, and engaging NGOs in policy development and implementation is more important as environmental issues continue to increase. It has been argued that notwithstanding Reagan's efforts to undo environmental regulation in the US, the effects have been limited as environmental interests were already strongly entrenched. Under President Trump, again, many environmental regulations have been dismantled or were scheduled to be rolled back. Other research suggests that many environmental policies adopted by governments are designed to be weak and largely ineffective as business interests use their power to influence or even shape these policies, also at

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1644-668: A more comprehensive and integrated approach to environmental issues. In 1972, the need for this was also recognised at the international level at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment , which led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme . Thus, growing environmental awareness and concern provided the main rationale for the adoption of environmental policies and institutions by governments. Environmental protection became

1781-514: A more efficient and cost-effective, alternative to regulation. Yet, many analysts have pointed out that regulation, economic incentives, "market" instruments, and environmental taxation and subsidies can achieve the same results. For instance, as Kemp and Pontoglio argue, policy instruments cannot be usefully ranked with regard to their effects on eco-innovation, "the often expressed view that market-based approaches such as pollution taxes and emission trading systems are better for promoting eco-innovation

1918-454: A pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools . Humans impact the water in different ways such as modifying rivers (through dams and stream channelization ), urbanization and deforestation . These impact lake levels, groundwater conditions, water pollution, thermal pollution, and marine pollution . Humans modify rivers by using direct channel manipulation. We build dams and reservoirs and manipulate

2055-400: A qualitative and quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of Earth. The Earth's crust or lithosphere , is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically, physically and mechanically different from underlying mantle . It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies

2192-430: A river is usually in a channel , made up of a stream bed between banks . In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle . Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff , groundwater recharge , springs and

2329-430: A scientific enterprise after WWII. While policy analysis as a decision-making tool continued to be applied in the business sector, the study of public policy, defined broadly as "What governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes, became an important strand in political science. This variety, which has been classified into analycentric, policy process, and meta-policy categories, has also manifested itself in

2466-545: A significant role pushing environmental issues onto the international agenda, together with international ENGOs, in what have been referred to as "epistemic communities." However, to what extent science can be "value-free" has been a subject of debate. Science and scientists always operate in a political-economic context that circumscribes their role, research and its effects. This raises the question of scientific integrity, especially when scientists are paid to serve commercial and political interests. Meta-policy research focuses on

2603-420: A subject of debate. Some argue that Non-Governmental organizations have the greatest influence on environmental policies. These days, many countries are facing huge environmental, social, and economic impacts of rapid population growth, development, and natural resource constraints. As NGOs try to help countries to tackle these issues more successfully, a lack of understanding about their role in civil society and

2740-508: A systematic and independent stage in the policy process, either before the adoption of policies (ex-ante evaluation) or after their implementation (ex-post evaluation) this remains fraught with problems. In practice, systematic evaluation remains a largely neglected aspect or stage of policymaking, in large part, because of the political nature and sensitivity of evaluating government's policies. The difficulties of policy evaluation also apply to environmental policies. Also there, policy evaluation

2877-507: A variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds . Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust , pollen and spores , sea spray , volcanic ash and meteoroids . Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury , and sulphur compounds such as sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ). The ozone layer of

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3014-559: A variable number of steps, including problem definition and agenda setting, the formulation and selection of policy options, implementation, and evaluation. These are conceived as being parts of a policy cycle, as existing policies are reviewed and changed for political reasons and/or because they are deemed to be unsatisfactory. The various stages have become the focus of much research, generating insights into why and how policies have been developed and implemented, with variable outcomes and effectiveness. These studies show that policy development

3151-522: A wide range of approaches to the development and implementation of environmental policies. To a large extent, differences in approaches have been influenced and shaped by the particular political, economic and social context of a country or polity (like the European Union or the United Nations). The differences in approaches, the reasons behind them, and their results have been the subject of research in

3288-437: Is "the integration of environmental considerations into all areas of human thinking, behaviour and practices that (potentially) affect the environment." This involves, among others, the development and adoption of an overarching view of the environment, an overarching policy to guide the "greening" of policies, and an institutional framework that gives "teeth" to environmental integration. In academic and government circles (notably

3425-436: Is a terrain feature , a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin . A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean and is larger and deeper than a pond . Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of

3562-434: Is a large body of research that looks at whether societies have moved or are moving towards "post-materialist" values, or to a New Environmental Paradigm. More broadly, the link between dominant worldviews and the way the environment is treated has been a focus of much debate. The rise and growing support for the environmental movement is often seen as a driver towards "greener" societies. If such socio-cultural trends hold, this

3699-647: Is a tool that relies foremost on the gathering of knowledge and information about (potential) environmental effects. It originated in the United States but has been adopted in many countries to analyse and assess the potential impacts of projects. Usually undertaken by experts, it is based on the assumption that an objective assessment of effects is possible, and that the knowledge generated will persuade decision-makers to make changes to proposals to mitigate or prevent adverse environmental effects. How EIA rules and processes are designed and implemented depends on regulation and

3836-435: Is an ideological position that was challenged by Karl Polanyi whose historical analysis shows how the idea of a self-regulating market was politically created. He added that "Such an institution could not exist for any length of time without annihilating the human and natural substance of society." By contrast, ecological economists argue that economic policies should be developed within a theoretical framework that recognises

3973-516: Is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by

4110-402: Is expected to lead governments to adopt stronger environmental policies. Other meta-policy research focuses on the different "environmental discourses" and how they compete for dominance in societies and worldwide. The power to influence or shape people's view of the world has been referred to as "cognitive power". The role of intellectuals, opinion leaders, and the media in shaping and advancing

4247-455: Is found in various kinds of natural body of water . An ocean is a major body of saline water and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the surface of the Earth (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas . More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity

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4384-785: Is from the Old English wildeornes , which in turn derives from wildeor meaning wild beast (wild + deor = beast, deer). From this point of view, it is the wildness of a place that makes it a wilderness. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being "wilderness". Many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered "wild". This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without very noticeable human interference. Wildlife includes all non- domesticated plants, animals and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over

4521-440: Is increasingly rare, wild nature (e.g., unmanaged forests , uncultivated grasslands , wildlife , wildflowers ) can be found in many locations previously inhabited by humans. Goals for the benefit of people and natural systems, commonly expressed by environmental scientists and environmentalists include: In some cultures the term environment is meaningless because there is no separation between people and what they view as

4658-591: Is influenced by the political context. Eccleston and March argue that although policymakers normally have access to reasonably accurate environmental information, political and economic factors are important and often lead to policy decisions that rank environmental priorities of secondary importance.[Reference needed] The effectiveness of hortatory instruments has also been under debate. Policies relying foremost on such instruments may amount to little more than symbolic policies, implying that governments have little or no intention to effectively address an issue while creating

4795-548: Is more about the role of and interplay between conflicting interests than the result of rational analysis and finding and adopting (optimal) solutions to problems. One of the main schools of thought on this front is that of incrementalism, which argues that policy change often occurs in small steps that accommodate conflicting interests. Policy process analysis has also been applied to environmental policy in its different stages. It has been used, for instance, to clarify why environmental issues have had difficulty reaching or staying on

4932-501: Is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species , climate , weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components: In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment . Built environments are where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion ,

5069-467: Is not brought out by the case study literature or by survey analysis", and there is actually more evidence that regulations stimulate radical innovation more than market-based instruments. It has also been argued that If the government can anticipate new technology or is able to react to it optimally, regulatory policies by virtue of administered prices (taxes) and policies by setting quantities (issuing tradable permits) are (almost) equivalent. More generally,

5206-443: Is not uniform. If, for instance, in an agricultural field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil, but the structure is quite different. Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere , the hydrosphere , the atmosphere and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks , water , air and life respectively. Some scientists include as part of

5343-498: Is often approached in simple terms based on the extent to which the stated goals of a policy have been achieved or not ("success or failure"). However, as many environmental policy analysts have pointed out, many other aspects of environmental policy are important. These include the goals and objectives of the policies (which may be deemed too vague, inadequate, poorly or wrongly targeted), their distributional effects (whether they contribute to or reduce environmental and social injustice),

5480-772: Is often highly fragmented, although environmental policy analysts have long pointed out the need for the development of more comprehensive and integrated environmental policies. In contrast to environmental policy, ecological policy addresses issues that focus on achieving benefits (both monetary and non monetary) from the non human ecological world. Broadly included in ecological policy is natural resource management (fisheries, forestry, wildlife, range, biodiversity, and at-risk species). This specialized area of policy possesses its own distinctive features. As pointed out by environmental historians , environmental problems have long afflicted human societies and led to collective efforts to address these problems. Some longstanding problems have been

5617-671: Is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system , and small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that civilized human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns. Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on

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5754-430: Is the one originally developed by Wladimir Köppen . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948, uses evapotranspiration as well as temperature and precipitation information to study animal species diversity and the potential impacts of climate changes . Weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given atmospheric area at a given time . Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere , just below

5891-417: Is when a factory produces waste pollution which may be discharged into a river, ultimately contaminating water. The cost of such action is paid by society at large when they must clean the water before drinking it and is external to the costs of the polluter. The free rider problem occurs when the private marginal cost of taking action to protect the environment is greater than the private marginal benefit, but

6028-457: Is widely recognised as one of the key elements of sustainable development, and it was adopted as a formal requirement by the EU. More recently, the notion of "climate policy integration", also denoted as "mainstreaming", has been applied to indicate the integration of climate considerations (both mitigation and adaptation) into the broader (often economically focused) activities of government. Although, in

6165-773: The Alkali Act 1868 , the Alkali Act Perpetuation Act 1868 , or the Alkali Act (1863) Perpetuation Act 1868 , was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It made perpetual the Alkali Act 1863 ( 26 & 27 Vict. c. 124). The bill for this act was originally called the Alkali Act Continuance Bill and was subsequently called the Alkali Act (1863) Perpetuation Bill . The act 31 & 32 Vict. c. 36

6302-638: The Alkali Act 1874 ( 37 & 38 Vict. c. 43), sometimes called the Alkali Act (1863) Amendment Act 1874 , the Inspector became the Chief Inspector. The first Chief Inspector was Dr Robert Angus Smith , he was statutorily responsible for the standards set and maintained by the Inspectorate, and reported directly to the Permanent Secretary of his department. For the first sixty years of its existence,

6439-472: The Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act 1881 ( 44 & 45 Vict. c. 37), then by the Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act 1892 ( 55 & 56 Vict. c. 30), and subsequently by the Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act 1906 ( 6 Edw. 7 . c. 14). There were subsequent amendments. The Alkali Act 1863 was formally repealed by section 30 of Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act 1881 ( 44 & 45 Vict. c. 37), though

6576-742: The continents , various archipelagos and other criteria, these divisions are : (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean , the Atlantic Ocean , the Indian Ocean , the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean . A river is a natural watercourse , usually freshwater , flowing toward an ocean , a lake , a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely without reaching another body of water. The water in

6713-408: The mitigation of greenhouse gases that are causing climatic changes, on developing adaptative strategies to global warming, to assist humans, other animal, and plant species, ecosystems, regions and nations in adjusting to the effects of global warming . Some examples of recent collaboration to address climate change and global warming include: A significantly profound challenge is to identify

6850-421: The stratosphere . Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth. Weather occurs due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to

6987-519: The Alkali Inspectorate. In 1956, the Clean Air Act 1956 was adopted in the wake of London 's Great Smog of 1952 that is believed to have killed 12,000 people. Concerns about the effects of pollution fuelled notably by the publication, in 1962, of Rachel Carson 's Silent Spring , sparked the beginning of the modern environmental movement. It also marked the start of "the environment" becoming

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7124-492: The EU), much of the focus has been on environmental policy integration (EPI), the process of integrating environmental objectives into non-environmental policy areas, such as energy, agriculture and transport, rather than leaving them to be pursued solely through "purely" environmental policies. This is often particularly challenging because of the need to reconcile global objectives and international rules with domestic needs and laws. EPI

7261-518: The Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in reducing the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes. Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are: Within

7398-526: The European Union, the very first Environmental Action Programme was adopted by national government representatives in July 1973 during the first meeting of the Council of Environmental Ministers. Since then an increasingly dense network of legislation has developed, which now extends to all areas of environmental protection including air pollution control, water protection and waste policy but also nature conservation and

7535-415: The abiotic constituents of their biotope . A more significant number or variety of species or biological diversity of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure changes to a different state. This is not universally

7672-777: The absence of a cap on fossil fuel use, as people might drive more fuel-efficient cars. To combat this result, Aubrey Meyer calls for a 'framework-based market' of Contraction and Convergence . The Cap and Share and the Sky Trust are proposals based on the idea. In the case of corporations, it is assumed that such tools make it financially rewarding to engage in efficient environmental management that also improves business and organizational performance They also encourage businesses to become more transparent about their environmental performance by publishing data and reporting. For economic instruments to function, some form(s) of regulation are needed that involve policy design, for instance, related to

7809-465: The air of muriatic acid gas ( gaseous hydrochloric acid ) from Leblanc alkali works. It was later extended to cover other industrial pollutants. Section 19 provided that the Alkali Act 1863 was to continue in force until 1 July 1868, and no longer. This section was repealed by section 1 of 31 & 32 Vict. c. 36, which enacted that the Alkali Act 1863 was "continued without any such limitation". The act 31 & 32 Vict. c. 36, sometimes called

7946-432: The allocation and distribution of (potential) costs and benefits, with the allocation of tradeable ("property") rights potentially generating significant profits to those who receive such rights. They are, therefore, generally much preferred by affected resource users and industries, which explains their popularity since the rise of neoliberalism. This has led analysts to point out that there are many other important aspects to

8083-549: The area of environmental policy analysis which developed since the 1960s. The analycentric approach to environmental policy analysis, which focuses on particular issues and uses mostly quantitative methods to identify "optimal" (cost-effective or efficient) solutions, has been the prevalent way to address environmental problems, both by governments and businesses. It is also often depicted as the rational or scientific approach to and for policy development. While scientific analyses and (preferably) quantitative data provide knowledge of

8220-425: The biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization , metabolism , growth , adaptation , response to stimuli and reproduction . Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms . In biology , the science of living organisms, "life" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter , including the capacity for growth, functional activity and

8357-576: The biophysical reality. The economic system is a sub-system of the biophysical environmental system on which humans and other species depend for their well-being and survival. The need for grounding environmental policy on ecological principles has also been recognised by many environmental policy analysts, sometimes under the label of ecological rationality and/or environmental integration. From this perspective, political, economic, and other systems, as well as policies, need to be "greened" to make them ecologically rational. In practice, governments have adopted

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8494-407: The case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level. The term ecosystem can also pertain to human-made environments, such as human ecosystems and human-influenced ecosystems. It can describe any situation where there is relationship between living organisms and their environment. Fewer areas on

8631-600: The choice and level of taxation, who pays, who qualifies for rights or permits, and the rules on which trading, and a "market" depend for their functioning. For example, the implementation of greener public purchasing programs relies on a combination of regulation and economic incentives. Normative ("hortatory") instruments ("sermons") rely on persuasion and information. They include, among others, campaigns aimed at raising public awareness and enhancing knowledge of environmental problems, calls upon people to change their behaviour and practices (like taking up recycling, reducing waste,

8768-429: The choice of policy instruments than their efficiency and cost-effectiveness, such as distributional, ethical and political aspects, and their appropriateness for addressing environmental problems. How environmental policies are made, how effective they are, and how they can or should be improved, has become the subject of considerable research and debate. In the academic realm, these questions are commonly addressed under

8905-428: The communication of environmental issues. Environmental policies often address issues in one of three dimensions of the environment: ecological (for instance, policies aimed at protecting a particular species or natural areas), resource (for instance, related to energy, land, water), and the human environment (the environment modified or shaped by humans, for instance, urban planning, pollution). Environmental policy-making

9042-425: The continual change preceding death. A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals , fungi , protists , archaea , and bacteria —are a carbon - and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism , maintain homeostasis , possess

9179-513: The control of chemicals, biotechnology and other industrial risks. EU environmental policy has thus become a core area of European politics. Despite commonalities between countries in the development of environmental policies and institutions, they have also adopted different approaches in this area. In the 1970s, the field of Comparative Environmental Politics and Policy emerged to compare the environmental policies and institutions of countries aimed at explaining differences and similarities. Some of

9316-448: The damaging effects of the use of pesticides, the depletion of the ozone layer , the greenhouse effect , and all kinds of pollution, among others. In this respect, they have often provided legitimacy and support to the raising of concerns by the environmental movement, although they have often been reluctant to get involved in environmental activism out of fear of compromising their scientific credibility. Nonetheless, scientists have played

9453-513: The decline and extinction of birds, the decline of aesthetics in landscapes and cities, large-scale mining (notably of coal), industrial pollution, and urban squalor led to growing awareness and appreciation of the importance of nature. Some seminal thinkers on these matters were George Perkins Marsh , Henry David Thoreau , and John Muir . In Europe, a positive view of nature was promoted by the Romanticist movement of poets, authors and artists from

9590-558: The design of environmental policy and the choice of policy instruments is always political and not just a matter determined by technical and efficiency considerations advanced by scientists, economists or other experts. As Majone has argued: "Policy instruments are seldom ideologically neutral" and "cannot be neatly separated from goals." The choice of policy instruments always occurs in a political context. Differences in ideological preferences of governments and political actors, and in national policy styles, have been argued to strongly influence

9727-404: The desire to avoid or create ambiguity and uncertainty. Market-based policy instruments also have their supporters and detractors. Among the detractors, for example, some environmentalists contend that a more radical, overarching approach is needed than a set of specific initiatives, to deal with climate change . For example, energy efficiency measures may actually increase energy consumption in

9864-624: The direction of the rivers and water path. Dams can usefully create reservoirs and hydroelectric power. However, reservoirs and dams may negatively impact the environment and wildlife. Dams stop fish migration and the movement of organisms downstream. Urbanization affects the environment because of deforestation and changing lake levels, groundwater conditions, etc. Deforestation and urbanization go hand in hand. Deforestation may cause flooding, declining stream flow and changes in riverside vegetation. The changing vegetation occurs because when trees cannot get adequate water they start to deteriorate, leading to

10001-438: The dominant views and ideologies in societies has been an important focus of Marxist and critical theory that has also influenced the analysis of environmental policy formation. Ownership and control of the media play an important role in the formation of public opinion on environmental issues. Other meta-policy research relevant to the development of environmental policy focuses on institutional and systemic factors. For instance,

10138-435: The drivers of human behaviour, which are considered to be rooted in the idea that societies are nothing but collections of self-interested "utility-maximising" individuals. As Elinor Ostrom has demonstrated, this is not supported by evidence on how societies actually make resource decisions. The market-failure theory also assumes that "markets" have, or should have precedence over governments in collective decision-making, which

10275-565: The early 18th century, a movement that lamented the despoliation of nature by industrialism. Building on these early forms of concern about nature, organisations aimed at the preservation of forests, birds and landscapes emerged in the United States , the United Kingdom , Europe , Australia and New Zealand in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, these efforts, combined with concerns about dwindling timber supplies, were instrumental in

10412-568: The efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the policy instruments used. In the realm of public policy, policy evaluation is a topic that is seen as much more encompassing and complex. Apart from efficiency and cost-effectiveness, many other important aspects of policy and criteria for evaluating them have been identified and discussed, including their knowledge (science) basis, their goals and objectives, ethical issues, distributional effects, and process and legitimacy. Although efforts have been made to put evaluation on its own (trans-) disciplinary footing as

10549-421: The environment , which is important to human society by having a (negative) impact on human values. Such human values are often labeled as good health or the 'clean and green' environment. In practice, policy analysts provide a wide variety of types of information to the public decision-making process. The concept of environmental policy was first used in the 1960s to recognise that all environmental problems, like

10686-420: The environment is an integrated whole or system, environmental policies need to take account of the interactions within that system and the effects of human actions and interventions not just on a problem in isolation, but also their (potential) effects of other problems. More often than not, fragmented policies and "solutions", for instance, to combat pollution, lead to the displacement of environmental problems or

10823-415: The environment itself, are interconnected. Addressing environmental problems effectively (such as air, water, and soil pollution ) requires looking at their connections and underlying and common sources, and how policies addressing particular problems can have spill-over effects on other problems and policies. "The environment" thus became a focus for public policy and environmental policy the term to refer to

10960-409: The environment. Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a highly interrelated set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. Eugene Odum , one of the founders of the science of ecology , stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e.: the "community") in a given area interacting with

11097-413: The establishment of the first nature reserves, national and forest parks and to changes in forestry laws. Concerns about pollution and its threat to humans as well as nature has provided another major stimulus for the development of environmental policies. In 1863, in the United Kingdom, health problems arising from the release of harmful chemicals led to the adoption of the Alkali Act and the creation of

11234-472: The extinction of natural habitats, which in turn leads to a reduction in wildlife population. The most recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the group of the leading climate scientists in the world) concluded that the earth will warm anywhere from 2.7 to almost 11 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 to 6 degrees Celsius) between 1990 and 2100. Efforts have been increasingly focused on

11371-481: The fields of comparative environmental politics and policy. But the study of problems and issues associated with environmental policy development has also been influenced by general public policy theories and analyses. Contributions on this front have been influenced by different academic disciplines, notably economics, public policy, and environmental studies, but also by political-ideological views, politics, and economic interests, among others through "think tanks". Thus,

11508-586: The five principal layers determined by temperature there are several layers determined by other properties. The dangers of global warming are being increasingly studied by a wide global consortium of scientists. These scientists are increasingly concerned about the potential long-term effects of global warming on our natural environment and on the planet. Of particular concern is how climate change and global warming caused by anthropogenic , or human-made releases of greenhouse gases , most notably carbon dioxide , can act interactively and have adverse effects upon

11645-462: The generation of new ones. The interconnectedness of the environmental challenge, it has been said, requires an approach that is "ecological rational" and environmentally effective. This holistic way of thinking has been picked up and developed under a variety of labels, including Holistic Resource Management, Integrated Environmental Management, Ecosystems Management, and the notion of Environmental Integration. Environmental integration, in broad terms,

11782-405: The hunting of animals to extinction, soil erosion and salinisation (because of over-irrigation), and the adverse effects of some practices on human health (wood fires, unhygienic practices). In some cases, these practices contributed to the collapse of societies. In the 19th century, the growing impact of human development and practices on the environment became increasingly apparent. Deforestation,

11919-430: The imposition of limits or standards for air and water pollution, car emissions, the regulation or banning of the use of hazardous substances, the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances, waste disposal, and laws to protect endangered species and natural areas. Regulation is often derogatorily referred to by detractors as a top-down, "command and control" approach as it leaves target groups with little if any control over

12056-467: The impression of taking it seriously. Such policies rely more on rhetoric than action. In the environmental realm, sustainable development policies or strategies are often used for this purpose if these are not translated into clear and specific objectives, timeframes and measures. Yet, hortatory policy instruments are often preferred by governments and other actors as they are seen as a way of recognising and sharing collective responsibility, possibly avoiding

12193-514: The individual measures do not undermine one another or create a rigid and cost-ineffective framework. Overlapping policies result in unnecessary administrative costs, increasing the cost of implementation. To help governments realize their policy goals, the OECD Environment Directorate, for example, collects data on the efficiency and consequences of environmental policies implemented by the national governments. Their website provides

12330-452: The inspectorate was solely concerned with the heavy chemicals industry , but from the 1920s onwards, its responsibilities were expanded, culminating in the Alkali. &c. Works Order 1958 ( SI 1958 /497). This placed all major heavy industries which emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under the supervision of the Inspectorate. The 1863 act was extended and expanded at least three times: first by

12467-854: The international level. International organizations have also made great impacts on environmental policies by creating programmes such as the United Nations Environment Programme and hosting conferences such as the United Nations Earth Summit to address environmental issues. UNEP is the leading global environmental authority tasked with policy guidance for environmental programs. The UNEP monitors environmental aspects, such as waste management, energy use, greenhouse gas inventory, and water use to promote environmental sustainability and address environmental issues. The role of science and scientists in policy environmental policy development has been another focus of research. Scientists have been instrumental in discovering many environmental problems, from

12604-556: The introduction of rules for cost-benefit analysis, risk analysis, consultation and accountability requirements, and organisational change. How environmental problems are interpreted and defined directly affects the development of environmental policies, at all stages of the policy cycle, from problem recognition, and the formulation of policy options, to decision-making, implementation and policy evaluation. However, much (meta-policy) research has been undertaken on what influences or shapes these views and interpretations. For instance, there

12741-400: The kind of instruments used (for instance, their ethical and political dimensions), the processes by which policies have been developed (public participation and deliberation), and the extent to which they are institutionally supported. Moreover, as many environmental thinkers and policy analysts have pointed out, addressing environmental problems effectively requires an integrated approach. As

12878-407: The label of environmental policy analysis. Environmental policy analysis is a broad field comprising different approaches to explaining and developing environmental policy. The first type has been referred to in the policy literature as the analysis of policy and the second as the analysis for policy. Many approaches are derived from the broader field of public policy analysis which emerged as

13015-477: The late 1980s and early 1990s, many governments began to adopt a more comprehensive approach to environmental issues, notably in the form of National Sustainable Development Strategies and "Green Planning", these efforts were largely abandoned during the 1990s due to the rise to prominence of neoliberal thinking, policies and reforms. This development led to the return of the fragmented and reactive approach to environmental problems with an emphasis on climate change and

13152-517: The late 1980s, "green planning" and the adoption of sustainable development strategies, in particular, received support in academic circles and among many governments as rational, goal-based policy approaches aimed at overcoming the limitations of the fragmented analycentric approach. The policy process approach emphasises the role and importance of politics and power in policy development. It aims foremost at better understanding how policies are made and put into practice. It commonly involves identifying

13289-459: The limitations of the rational approach were already acknowledged by an early proponent, Herbert Simon, who argued that "limited rationality" provided a more realistic basis for decision-making. This view has also been expressed by advocates of more comprehensive and integrated environmental policy development, who argued that looking at problems in isolation (on a one-by-one basis) ignores the linkages between environmental problems and their causes. In

13426-419: The main difference underlying these categories is the degree of coercion (authoritative force) involved. Regulation has been a traditional and predominant approach to policymaking in many policy areas and countries. It relies foremost on adopting rules (often backed up by legislation), to prohibit, impose or circumscribe human behaviour and practices. In the environmental policy area, this includes, for instance,

13563-415: The mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements . The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection . This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics . Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes . Most water

13700-479: The more immediate sources or causes of environmental problems, such as forms of pollution and climate change, policy prescriptions are based on setting goals, objectives and targets and the identification of the most cost-effective and efficient means by assessing alternative options. Technological innovation, more efficient management, and economic instruments such as cost-benefit analysis, environmental taxes, and tradeable permit schemes (market creation) have been among

13837-524: The natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert , the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams and the works of mound-building termites are thought of as natural. People cannot find absolutely natural environments on Earth,naturalness usually varies in

13974-410: The natural environmental dynamics in contrast to environmental changes not within natural variances. A common solution is to adapt a static view neglecting natural variances to exist. Methodologically, this view could be defended when looking at processes which change slowly and short time series, while the problem arrives when fast processes turns essential in the object of the study. Climate looks at

14111-495: The natural world, or their surroundings. Specifically in the United States and Arabian countries many native cultures do not recognize the "environment", or see themselves as environmentalists. Alkali Act 1863 The Alkali Act 1863 ( 26 & 27 Vict. c. 124) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Under the Alkali Act 1863, an alkali inspector and four subinspectors were appointed to curb discharge into

14248-483: The need for regulation and/or economic instruments. They are thus often used as a first step towards addressing environmental problems. However, these tools are often combined with some form of legislation and regulation, for instance, in the case of labelling of consumer products (product information), waste disposal and recycling. There has been much debate about the relative merits of the various kinds of policy instruments. Market instruments are often held up and used as

14385-409: The origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that

14522-502: The performance of economic instruments in dealing with environmental problems has been a mixed bag, referred to by Hahn as "not very impressive", and has led Tietenberg to conclude that they are "no panacea". Different instruments are sometimes combined in a policy mix to address a particular environmental problem. Since environmental issues have many aspects, several policy instruments may be required to adequately address each one. Ideally, government policies are carefully formulated so that

14659-438: The physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem." The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy , and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with

14796-499: The pioneers in this area were Lennart Lundqvist and Cynthia Enloe. As documented by environmental historians , human societies have always impacted their environment, often with adverse consequences for themselves and the rest of nature. Their failure to (timely) recognise and address these problems has been a contributing factor to their decline and collapse. Although particular environmental problems like soil erosion, growing resource scarcity, air and water pollution increasingly became

14933-400: The planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, rain forests, plains, and other areas—including the most developed urban sites—all have distinct forms of wildlife. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by civilized human factors, most scientists agree that wildlife around

15070-415: The planet, its natural environment and humans' existence. It is clear the planet is warming, and warming rapidly. This is due to the greenhouse effect , which is caused by greenhouse gases, which trap heat inside the Earth's atmosphere because of their more complex molecular structure which allows them to vibrate and in turn trap heat and release it back towards the Earth. This warming is also responsible for

15207-447: The preferred means in this approach. The analycentric or rational approach has been critiqued on various grounds. First, it assumes that there is adequate knowledge and agreement on the causes of problems and the goals to be achieved. Second, the approach ( for policy) ignores the way policies are developed in (political) practice. Third, the preferred means are often based on questionable assumptions notably about human behaviour. Many of

15344-462: The public and political agendas. More recently, research has revealed the role and power of businesses, notably the oil industry, in downplaying the risks associated with climate change or "climate denial." "Think tanks" and the media have been used to sow scepticism about the science behind environmental and other problems, to redefine issues, and to avert policies that threaten the interests of businesses. Policy process analyses also include studies of

15481-441: The public perception that the government alone is responsible for the well-being of its citizens and residents makes NGOs tasks more difficult to achieve. NGOs such as Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund can help tackling issues by conducting research to facilitate policy development, building institutional capacity, and facilitating independent dialogue with civil society to help people live more sustainable lifestyles. The need for

15618-752: The realm of environmental policy. Economic instruments involve the imposition or use of economic incentives, including (environmental) taxes, tax exemptions, fees, subsidies, and the creation of markets and rights for trading in substances, pollutants, resources, or activities, such as for SO2, CO2 (carbon or greenhouse gas emissions), water, and tradeable fisheries quota. They are based on the assumption that behaviour and practices are foremost driven by rationality, self-interest and economic considerations and that these motivations can be harnessed for environmental purposes. Decision-making studies cast doubt on these premises. Often, decisions are reached based on irrational influences, unconscious biases, illogical assumptions, and

15755-443: The release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream , creek and brook. Their current is confined within a bed and stream banks . Streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity . The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology . A lake (from Latin lacus )

15892-543: The role of environmental institutions and their capacity and power within the broader systems of government is found to be an important factor in advancing or constraining environmental policy. More broadly, the question of whether capitalism is compatible or not with long-term environmental protection has been a subject of debate. As, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the introduction of capitalism in China, capitalism became

16029-440: The selection of policy instruments, linked to different historical, political-economic and socio-cultural contexts, and the inevitable role and influence of different cognitive and ideological frameworks in the analysis and design of policies, all make that evaluating environmental policies is also a complex and controversial matter. As many policy analysts have pointed out, judging the merits of policies goes beyond an assessment of

16166-484: The social marginal cost is less than the social marginal benefit. The tragedy of the commons is the condition that, because no one person owns the commons, each individual has an incentive to utilize common resources as much as possible. Without governmental involvement, the commons is overused. Examples of tragedies of the commons are overfishing and overgrazing . The "market failure" rationale for environmental policy has been criticised for its implicit assumptions about

16303-627: The spheres of the Earth, the cryosphere (corresponding to ice ) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (to soil ) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geographical sciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth . There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography , geology , geophysics and geodesy . These major disciplines use physics , chemistry , biology , chronology and mathematics to build

16440-495: The statistics of temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , rainfall , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time. Weather , on the other hand, is the present condition of these same elements over periods up to two weeks. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme

16577-408: The subject of concern and government regulation in the 19th century, these were seen and addressed as separate issues. The shortcomings of this reactive and fragmented approach received growing recognition during the 1960s and early 1970s, the first wave of environmentalism . This was reflected in the creation, in many countries, of environmental agencies, policies and legislation with the aim of taking

16714-637: The substance was consolidated in this and later acts. The Alkali Acts were finally replaced by the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (c. 43). The Inspectorate has worked under the purview of many different departments: The Chief Inspector's independence disappeared when the Inspectorate was transferred to the Health and Safety Executive in 1975. The Inspectorate was known as Industrial Air Pollution Inspectorate from 1983 to 1987 and became Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) when it

16851-434: The sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of

16988-775: The surface of the earth today exist free from human contact, although some genuine wilderness areas continue to exist without any forms of human intervention. Global biogeochemical cycles are critical to life, most notably those of water , oxygen , carbon , nitrogen and phosphorus . Wilderness is generally defined as a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. The WILD Foundation goes into more detail, defining wilderness as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet – those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads, pipelines or other industrial infrastructure." Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for

17125-420: The survival of certain species , ecological studies, conservation , solitude, and recreation . Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral , and aesthetic reasons. Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. The word, "wilderness", derives from the notion of wildness ; in other words that which is not controllable by humans. The word etymology

17262-594: The use of "market-based" instruments. The field of Comparative Environment Policy and Politics aims to explain the differences in performance related to, among others, differences in political systems, institutions, policy styles and cultures. However, the environmental performance of governments remains commonly based on achievements in a range of environmental problems and policy outputs, as measured by separate indicators like CO2 emissions, different forms of air pollution, water quality indicators, and biological diversity (individual species). These assessments are often used as

17399-503: The use of water and energy, and using public transport), and voluntary agreements between governments and businesses. They share the aim of encouraging people to do "the right thing", to change their behaviour and practices, and to accept individual or group responsibility for addressing issues. Agreements between the government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of government requirements are examples of voluntary environmental measures. Environmental Impact Assessment

17536-478: The variety of actors and their influence on government decision-making. Although pluralism, the idea that not one group dominates all decision-making in modern societies, has long been the prevailing school of thought in political science, it has been contested by elite theories that assign predominant power to elites in different areas or sectors of decision-making. To what extent environmental groups have had influence on government decisions and policies continues to be

17673-484: The way environmental issues were addressed more or less comprehensively. Environmental issues typically addressed by environmental policy include (but are not limited to) air and water pollution , waste management , ecosystem management, biodiversity protection, the protection of natural resources , wildlife and endangered species , and the management of these natural resources for future generations. Relatively recently, environmental policy has also attended to

17810-468: The way(s) environmental activities or goals must be pursued. Since the 1980s, with the rise of neoliberalism in many countries and the associated redefinition of the role of the state (centred on the notion of governance rather than government), regulation has been touted as ineffective and inefficient, sparking a move toward deregulation and the adoption by many governments of "new" policy instruments, notably market instruments and voluntary agreements, also in

17947-401: The ways policy development is influenced or shaped by contextual factors, including political institutions and systems, socio-cultural patterns, economic systems, knowledge frameworks, discourses, and the changes therein. The latter may involve deliberate changes to the formal and non-formal institutions through which policy analysis, development, decision-making, and implementation occur, such as

18084-411: The world is (now) impacted by human activities. It is the common understanding of natural environment that underlies environmentalism — a broad political , social and philosophical movement that advocates various actions and policies in the interest of protecting what nature remains in the natural environment, or restoring or expanding the role of nature in this environment. While true wilderness

18221-826: The world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. A pond is a body of standing water , either natural or human-made, that is usually smaller than a lake . A wide variety of human-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams by their current speed . While currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro-currents and moderate wind-driven currents. These features distinguish

18358-465: The year. On the Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in the Earth's orbit have affected the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influenced long-term climate. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting

18495-598: Was confirmed by the Senate on December 2, 1970, which is the traditional date used as the birth of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Five months earlier, in July 1970, President Nixon had signed Reorganization Plan No. 3 calling for the establishment of EPA. At the time, environmental policy was a bipartisan issue and the efforts of the United States of America made it an early environmental leader. During this period, legislation

18632-554: Was passed to regulate pollutants that go into the air, water tables, and solid waste disposal. President Nixon signed the Clean Air Act in 1970. In many countries, governments created environment ministries, departments or agencies, and appointed ministers of or for the environment. The world's first minister of the environment was the British Politician Peter Walker from the Conservative Party in 1970. In

18769-457: Was repealed by section 30 of the Alkali, &c. Works Regulation Act 1881 ( 44 & 45 Vict. c. 37), which further provided that this repeal was "without prejudice to anything done or suffered before the commencement of this Act, or to the recovery of any penalty incurred before or proceeding pending at the commencement of this Act; and any such penalty or proceeding may be recovered or continued as if this Act had not been passed." In 1874, under

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