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137-611: Environmental resource management or environmental management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment . It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical , economic , and scientific ( ecological ) variables. Environmental resource management tries to identify factors between meeting needs and protecting resources. It

274-417: A Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree. At the undergraduate level,

411-442: A chief financial officer , chief technology officer , and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a " tone at the top " and develop strategic plans , company policies , and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to

548-401: A mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women. She also stated that rather than being a forward-moving theory, ecofeminism is an anti-progressive movement for women. Conversely socialist ecofeminists situate gender roles in a poltical-economic framework, arguing for a materialist analysis that is deeply radical. The socialist feminist may oppose

685-459: A "separation between nature and culture" that is the root source of our planetary ills. Some ecofeminism developed out of anarcha-feminist concern to abolishing all forms of domination, yet focusing on the oppressive nature of humanity's relationship to the natural world. According to d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort , ecofeminism relates the oppression and domination of all marginalized groups (women, people of color, children,

822-668: A broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication. Consist of general managers , branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to

959-527: A dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third. Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities. Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments. This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US. By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as

1096-555: A deep respect for nature, a feminine outlook, and an aim to establish strong community values. In her book Radical Ecology, Carolyn Merchant refers to spiritual ecofeminism as "cultural ecofeminism". According to Merchant, cultural ecofeminism, "celebrates the relationship between women and nature through the revival of ancient rituals centered on goddess worship, the moon, animals, and the female reproductive system." In this sense, cultural ecofeminists tend to value intuition and an ethic of care in human-nature interrelationships. Like

1233-535: A manager's organization and a foe's. The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration. American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou , argued in his Desultory Notes on

1370-538: A market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles. Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in

1507-521: A market society that today even invades the womb". Ecofeminism in this sense seeks to eliminate social hierarchies which favor the production of commodities (dominated by men) over biological and social reproduction traditionally seen as the sphere of women's work - see also Salleh . Spiritual ecofeminism is another approach to ecofeminism, and it is popular among North American authors such as Starhawk , Riane Eisler , and Carol J. Adams. Starhawk calls this an earth-based spirituality, which recognizes that

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1644-487: A meat-based diet." During a 1995 interview with On the Issues, Carol J. Adams stated, "Manhood is constructed in our culture in part by access to meat-eating and control of other bodies, whether it's women or animals". According to Adams, "We cannot work for justice and challenge the oppression of nature without understanding that the most frequent way we interact with nature is by eating animals". Vegetarian ecofeminism refines

1781-462: A movement for evidence-based management . The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb mesnager , which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse". Also the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish , manejar can also mean to rule the horses. These three terms derive from

1918-537: A philosophy. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity , the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class . One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to " business administration " and thus excludes management in places outside commerce , for example in charities and in

2055-454: A physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management

2192-439: A pyramid structure: Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent major degree programs in management include Management , Business Administration and Public Administration . Social scientists study management as an academic discipline , investigating areas such as social organization , organizational adaptation , and organizational leadership . In recent decades, there has been

2329-401: A reaction to dominant anthropocentric paradigms. "In its current form, it is an attempt to synthesize many old and some new philosophical attitudes about the relationship between nature and human activity, with particular emphasis on ethical, social, and spiritual aspects that have been downplayed in the dominant economic worldview." Main article: Economics The economy functions within and

2466-446: A shared vision and understanding of what sustainability is for that particular organization and to clarify the business case. The public sector comprises the general government sector plus all public corporations including the central bank . In environmental resource management the public sector is responsible for administering natural resource management and implementing environmental protection legislation. The traditional role of

2603-409: A symbiotic relationship between the sustaining organization, community, and environment. Many drivers compel environmental resource management to take sustainability issues into account. Today's economic paradigms do not protect the natural environment, yet they deepen human dependency on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Ecologically, massive environmental degradation and climate change threaten

2740-771: A system of ethics and action. The key activist-scholars developing a materialist ecofeminism are Maria Mies and Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen in Germany; Vandana Shiva in India; Ariel Salleh in Australia; Mary Mellor in the UK; and Ana Isla in Peru. Materialist ecofeminism is not widely known in North America aside from the journal collective at Capitalism Nature Socialism . A materialist view integrates economic institutions such as labor, power, and property as

2877-420: A thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne 's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor 's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth 's Psychology of Management (1914), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt 's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote

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3014-399: A training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees. Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor", and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership writer John Kotter uses

3151-408: A universal and value-free system. They view the dominant stream of science not as objective rather as a projection of Western patriarchal values. The determination of what is considered scientific knowledge and its usage has been largely restricted to men. Examples include the medicalization of childbirth and the industrialization of plant reproduction . A common claim within ecofeminist literature

3288-649: A variety of perspectives. It involves the management of all components of the biophysical environment , both living ( biotic ) and non-living ( abiotic ), and the relationships among all living species and their habitats . The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural, and economic environment, with the biophysical environment. The essential aspects of environmental resource management are ethical, economical, social, and technological. These underlie principles and help make decisions. The concept of environmental determinism, probabilism , and possibilism are significant in

3425-475: Is a branch of feminism and political ecology . Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyse the relationships between humans and the natural world. The term was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974). Ecofeminist theory asserts a feminist perspective on Green politics that calls for an egalitarian, collaborative society in which there

3562-603: Is a great significance in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world. Broadly speaking, two schools of thought exist in environmental ethics : Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism , each influencing a broad spectrum of environmental resource management styles along a continuum. These styles perceive "...different evidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economic sectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc." Anthropocentrism, "an inclination to evaluate reality exclusively in terms of human values,"

3699-911: Is an essential function in improving one's life and relationships . Management is therefore everywhere and it has a wider range of application. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent pursuit. Plans, measurements , motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans , and meeting goals , but this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions : In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as

3836-418: Is an ethic reflected in the major interpretations of Western religions and the dominant economic paradigms of the industrialised world. Anthropocentrism looks at nature as existing solely for the benefit of humans, and as a commodity to use for the good of humanity and to improve human quality of life. Anthropocentric environmental resource management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for

3973-413: Is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases. Kissidougou, Guinea’s dry season brings about fires in the open grass fires which defoliate the few trees in the savanna. There are villages within this savanna surrounded by “islands” of forests, allowing for forts, hiding, rituals, protection from wind and fire, and shade for crops. According to scholars and researchers in the region during

4110-492: Is concerned about a wide variety of issues, including reproductive technology, equal pay and equal rights, toxic pollution, Third World development, and more. Norie Ross Singer and A. E. Kings emphasize that ecofeminism must be read from an intersectionality perspective, advancing an anti-essentialist critical ecofeminism of difference accounting for how multiple axes of identity such as gender, race, and class variously intermesh in human-nonhuman relationships. Kings argues that

4247-529: Is considered a useful framework for dealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty though it is not without its detractors. A common scientific concept and impetus behind environmental resource management is carrying capacity . Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory. An example

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4384-485: Is dependent upon goods and services provided by natural ecosystems. The role of the environment is recognized in both classical economics and neoclassical economics theories, yet the environment was a lower priority in economic policies from 1950 to 1980 due to emphasis from policy makers on economic growth. With the prevalence of environmental problems, many economists embraced the notion that, "If environmental sustainability must coexist for economic sustainability, then

4521-514: Is economically beneficial, and also provides a way for very urban communities to be in touch with nature and each other. The majority of people interested in this project (as noted in 1990) were women. Through these gardens, they were able to participate in and become leaders of their communities. Urban greening exists in other places as well. Beginning in 1994, a group of African-American women in Detroit have developed city gardens, and call themselves

4658-403: Is evident in the standard gendered language used to describe nature, such as "Mother Earth" or "Mother Nature", and the animalized language used to describe women in derogatory terms. Other ecofeminists point to the value of women's learning from their traditional social role as caregiver . The Indian ecofeminist and activist Vandana Shiva also writes that women have a special connection to

4795-502: Is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles. The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors , executive directors and independent directors ), president , vice-president , CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include

4932-521: Is greater than the sum of their parts; there is evidence of increased population correlating to an increase in forest cover. Fairhead and Leach support the enabling of policy and socioeconomic conditions in which local resource management conglomerates can act effectively. In Kissidougou, there is evidence that local powers and community efforts shaped the island forests that shape the savanna’s landscape.   Management Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers, in

5069-467: Is no one dominant group. Today, there are several branches of ecofeminism, with varying approaches and analyses, including liberal ecofeminism, spiritual/cultural ecofeminism, and social/socialist ecofeminism (or materialist ecofeminism). Interpretations of ecofeminism and how it might be applied to social thought include ecofeminist art , social justice and political philosophy , religion, contemporary feminism, and poetry. Ecofeminist analysis explores

5206-421: Is patriarchal culture and that the conservation of nature and natural processes is the best way to help these individuals is mistaken. She instead contends that natural processes are a source of immense suffering for these animals and that we should work towards alleviating the harms they experience, as well as eliminating patriarchal sources of harm, such as hunting. However, a position like this has been used by

5343-407: Is potentially patronizing to marginalized groups. Likewise, a radical white savior complex can disrupt the self-advocacy of racially marginalized peoples. Such criticisms rest on a failure to recognise the political intersectionality of ecofeminist critiques of global domination. Catia Faria argues that the view held by ecofeminists that the largest source of harm to non-human animals in the wild

5480-411: Is that Western patriarchal structures justify their dominance through binary oppositions, these include but are not limited to: heaven /earth, mind/body, male / female , human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature and white /non-white . Oppression is reinforced by applying these binaries in social judgements of value/non-value. A version of established vegetarian ecofeminism asserts that "omitting

5617-457: Is that of the recovery of natural resources . Such private sector recovery groups include mining (minerals and petroleum), forestry and fishery organisations. Environmental resource management undertaken by the private sectors varies dependent upon the resource type, that being renewable or non-renewable and private and common resources (also see Tragedy of the Commons ). Environmental managers from

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5754-401: Is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges

5891-695: Is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business , such as

6028-953: Is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management . Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in various ways: Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting . For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables , service products or durables and unsaleables – toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating

6165-443: Is thus linked to environmental protection , resource management , sustainability , integrated landscape management , natural resource management , fisheries management , forest management , wildlife management , environmental management systems , and others. Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern, as reflected in its prevalence in several texts influencing global sociopolitical frameworks such as

6302-554: Is upheld through the notion that in activist and theory circles marginalized groups must be included in the discussion. In early North American movements, issues of race and class were often separated. Beginning in the late 20th century, women worked in efforts to protect wildlife , food, air and water. These efforts coincided with new developments in the environmental movement among influential writers, such as Henry David Thoreau , Aldo Leopold , John Muir , and Rachel Carson . Parallel examples from women environmental ethicists were

6439-816: Is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive . However, "it is argued that Western scientific knowledge ... is often insufficient to deal with the full complexity of the interplay of variables in environmental resource management. These concerns have been recently addressed by a shift in environmental resource management approaches to incorporate different knowledge systems including traditional knowledge , reflected in approaches such as adaptive co-management community-based natural resource management and transitions management among others. Sustainability in environmental resource management involves managing economic, social, and ecological systems both within and outside an organizational entity so it can sustain itself and

6576-490: The Boston Consulting Group reaching 1,560 business leaders from diverse regions, job positions, expertise in sustainability, industries, and sizes of organizations, revealed the many benefits of sustainable practice as well as its viability. Although the sustainability of environmental resource management has improved, corporate sustainability , for one, has yet to reach the majority of global companies operating in

6713-657: The Brundtland Commission 's Our Common Future , which highlighted the integrated nature of the environment and international development , and the Worldwatch Institute 's annual State of the World reports. The environment determines the nature of people, animals , plants , and places around the Earth , affecting behaviour, religion , culture and economic practices. Environmental resource management can be viewed from

6850-513: The Chipko movement to protect forests from deforestation . Many men during this time were moving to cities in search of work, and women that stayed in the rural parts of India were reliant on the forests for subsistence. As documented by Vandana Shiva, Non-violent protest tactics were used to occupy trees so that loggers could not cut them down. In Kenya in 1977, the Green Belt Movement

6987-581: The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), the Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public administration. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management were available with many specializations. While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by

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7124-436: The Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration , for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector. Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in

7261-795: The government jobs . Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study. To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area . At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship , human resources , international business , organizational behavior , organizational theory , strategic management , accounting , corporate finance , entertainment, global management, healthcare management , investment management , sustainability and real estate . A Master of Business Administration (MBA)

7398-566: The public sector . More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as " business schools ". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School ) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management ) employ the broader term "management". English speakers may also use

7535-789: The reductionist capitalist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth (23)". Shiva attributes this failure to the Western patriarchal perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women, nature, and other groups not growing the economy as "unproductive". Similarly, Australian ecofeminist Ariel Salleh deepens this materialist ecofeminist approach in dialogue with green politics, ecosocialism , genetic engineering and climate policy. In Ecofeminism (1993) authors Vandana Shiva together with Maria Mies from Germany interrogate modern science and its acceptance as

7672-482: The 1780s to 1860s “the whole country [was] prairie.” James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, both environmental anthropologists at the University of Sussex, claim the state’s environmental analyses “casts into question the relationships between society, demography, and environment.” With this, they reformed the state’s narratives: Local land use can be both vegetation enriching and degrading; combined effect on resource management

7809-414: The 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research , initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as " management science " (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management ), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in

7946-558: The Earth is alive, and that we are an interconnected community. Spiritual ecofeminism is not linked to one specific religion, but is centered around values of caring, compassion , and non-violence. Often, ecofeminists refer to more ancient traditions, such as the worship of Gaia , the Goddess of nature and spirituality (also known as Mother Earth). Wicca and Paganism are particularly influential to spiritual ecofeminism. Most Wicca covens demonstrate

8083-559: The Gardening Angels. Similar garden movements have occurred globally. The development of vegetarian ecofeminism can be traced to the mid-80s and 90s, where it first appeared in writing. However, the roots of a vegetarian ecofeminist view can be traced back further by looking at sympathy for non-humans and counterculture movements of the 1960s and 1970s. At the culmination of the decade, ecofeminism had spread to both USA coasts and articulated an intersectional analysis of women and

8220-668: The Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic . Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination , the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on

8357-521: The Green Belt Movement continues today. In 1978 in New York , mother and environmentalist Lois Gibbs led her community in protest after discovering that their entire neighborhood, Love Canal , was built on top of a toxic dump site . The toxins in the ground were causing illness among children and reproductive issues among women, as well as birth defects in babies born to pregnant women exposed to

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8494-539: The Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli ( c.  1515 ). Written in 1776 by Adam Smith , a Scottish moral philosopher , The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour . Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins . While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed

8631-570: The Postmoden was mostly found among North American academics influenced by post-structuralist theory. In Europe and the global South, class, race, gender and species dominations were framed by more grounded materialist understandings. While Rosemary Radford Ruether critiqued any mysticism in work that focused on helping women, she argued that spirituality and activism can be combined effectively in ecofeminism. Social ecologist and feminist Janet Biehl criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on

8768-438: The analysis is fundamentally intersectional given that it is built upon the idea that patriarchal violence against women is connected to domination of nature. Feminist thought surrounding ecofeminism grew in some areas as it was criticized; vegetarian ecofeminism contributed to intersectional analysis; and ecofeminisms that analyzed animal rights , labor rights and activisms focused on oppressed groups. However to some critics,

8905-557: The areas of logistics and operations. Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives (systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-technology -driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and

9042-668: The association between domination by men of women and the domination of culture over nature. Feminist activism of the 1980s included grass-roots movements such as the National Toxics Campaign, Mothers of East Los Angeles (MELA), and Native Americans for a Clean Environment (NACE) led by women devoted to issues of human health and environmental justice. Writings in this circle discussed ecofeminism drawing from Green Party politics, peace movements , and direct action movements. Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and patriarchal values, such that

9179-421: The basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy

9316-418: The best available evidence. As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine

9453-446: The books Silent Spring by Rachel Carson and Refuge by Terry Tempest Williams . Ecofeminist author Karen Warren lists Aldo Leopold's essay " Land Ethic " (1949) as fundamental to her own ecofeminist conception, as Leopold was the first to pen an ethic for the land which understands all non-human parts of that community (animals, plants, land, air, water) as equal to and in a relationship with humans. This inclusive understanding of

9590-484: The centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises , given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. With

9727-577: The changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories . Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with

9864-437: The communities who most directly interact with the resource and who are most deeply impacted by the overexploitation of said resource to make the decisions regarding its management, thus empowering local communities and more effectively managing resources. Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of integrated management . It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It

10001-601: The community (people and the environment). This movement is known as the Women's Pentagon Actions. In 1985, the Akwesasne Mother's Milk Project was launched by Katsi Cook . This study was funded by the government, and investigated how the higher level of contaminants in water near the Mohawk reservation impacted babies. It revealed that through breast milk , Mohawk children were being exposed to 200% more toxins than children not on

10138-405: The concept of environmental resource management. Environmental resource management covers many areas in science , including geography , biology , social sciences , political sciences , public policy , ecology , physics , chemistry , sociology , psychology , and physiology . Environmental resource management as a practice and discourse (across these areas) is also the object of study in

10275-517: The connections between women and nature in culture, economy, religion, politics, literature and iconography, and addresses the culturally constructed parallels between the oppression of nature and the oppression of women. These parallels include, but are not limited to, seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature. Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected. Though

10412-411: The day-to-day activities of the organization. However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance . Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation

10549-450: The demand for lateral decision making that supports effective participation. Whether it be a matter of ethics or just strategic advantage organizations are internalizing sustainability principles. Some of the world's largest and most profitable corporations are shifting to sustainable environmental resource management: Ford, Toyota, BMW, Honda, Shell, Du Port, Sta toil, Swiss Re, Hewlett-Packard, and Unilever, among others. An extensive study by

10686-433: The ecofeminist by arguing that women do not have an intrinsic connection with nature; rather, that is a socially constructed narrative. Although environmental justice and feminist care ethics have pushed for participation of marginalized groups, Andrew Charles points out that people with disabilities still face issues of access and representation in policy making. It is also suggested that the nurturing aspect of ecofeminism

10823-412: The effects of capitalism have not benefited women. In the 1970s, many ecofeminists argued that the nature/culture split can be healed by women's holistic knowledge of nature's processes. Other ecofeminist scholars emphasize that it is not because women are female or "feminine" that they are sensitive to nature, but because they experience oppression by the same masculinist forces. The marginalization

10960-429: The environment as an economic externality for an environmental resource management strategy. This approach has often been termed 'Command-and-control'. Colby has identified trends in the development of economic paradigms, among them, a shift towards more ecological economics since the 1990s. There are many definitions of the field of science commonly called ecology . A typical one is "the branch of biology dealing with

11097-418: The environment helped launch the modern preservation movement and illustrated how environmental issues can be viewed through a framework of caring. Women have long participated in environmental movements , specifically preservation and conservation beginning in the late nineteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth century. In India , in the state of Uttarakhand in 1973, women took part in

11234-510: The environment is a closed system that cannot be replenished and is finite. Economic models influence environmental resource management, in that management policies reflect beliefs about natural capital scarcity. For someone who believes natural capital is infinite and easily substituted, environmental management is irrelevant to the economy. For example, economic paradigms based on neoclassical models of closed economic systems are primarily concerned with resource scarcity and thus prescribe legalizing

11371-433: The environment through their daily interactions and that this has been underestimated. According to Shiva, women in subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by

11508-473: The environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment, and ecosystem structure, for humans' sake. Ecocentrists believe in the intrinsic value of nature while maintaining that human beings must use and even exploit nature to survive and live. It is this fine ethical line that ecocentrists navigate between fair use and abuse. At an extreme of the ethical scale, ecocentrism includes philosophies such as ecofeminism and deep ecology , which evolved as

11645-535: The environment. Eventually, challenging ideas of environmental classism and racism, resisting toxic dumping and other threats to the impoverished. In the 1980s and 1990s ecofeminism began to be heavily critiqued as ' essentialism '. The critics wrongly believed ecofeminism to be reinforcing patriarchal dominance and norms, misconstruing the ideological challenge involved. Post structural and third wave feminists argued that ecofeminism itself equated women with nature and this grouped all women into one category enforcing

11782-414: The field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants, and/or professors in business administration or management. There are several types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (DM),

11919-510: The first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the " Japanese management style ". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance . The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described

12056-721: The gap between top-level and bottom-level staff. Their functions include: Line managers include supervisors , section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of

12193-777: The growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders ) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common. The field of management originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing . Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The Art of War recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both

12330-615: The implementation of resource management plans, particularly land management plans. The aim of civil society in environmental resource management is to be included in the decision-making process by means of public participation . Public participation can be an effective strategy to invoke a sense of social responsibility of natural resources. As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards, and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard

12467-465: The inclusion of non-human animals came to be viewed as essentialist. In the 21st century, ecofeminists became aware of the criticisms, and in response some among them began doing research and renaming the topic, i.e. queer ecologies, global feminist environmental justice , and gender and the environment. The essentialism concern as Ariel Salleh pointed out in Ecofeminism as Politics: Nature, Marx and

12604-550: The late-19th and 20th centuries, there was a steady decline in tree cover. This led to colonial Guinea’s implementation of policies, including the switch of upland to swamp farming; bush-fire control; protection of certain species and land; and tree planting in villages. These policies were carried out in the form of permits, fines, and military repression. But, Kissidougou villagers claim their ancestors’ established these islands. Many maps and letters evidence France’s occupation of Guinea, as well as Kissidougou’s past landscape. During

12741-462: The markets. The three major barriers to preventing organizations from shifting towards sustainable practice with environmental resource management are not understanding what sustainability is; having difficulty modeling an economically viable case for the switch; and having a flawed execution plan, or a lack thereof. Therefore, the most important part of shifting an organization to adopt sustainability in environmental resource management would be to create

12878-448: The materialist ecofeminists Mies, Shiva, and Salleh, Susan A. Mann, an ecofeminist and professor of sociological and feminist theory, considers the roles women played in these activisms to be the starter for ecofeminism in later centuries. Mann associates the beginning of ecofeminism not with feminists but with women of many different backgrounds who made perceived connections between gender, race, class, and environmental issues. This ideal

13015-418: The misidentification, or lack of information pertaining to the relationships between ecological variables; parameter uncertainty referring to "uncertainty associated with parameter values that are not known precisely but can be assessed and reported in terms of the likelihood…of experiencing a defined range of outcomes"; and stochastic uncertainty stemming from chance or unrelated factors. Adaptive management

13152-787: The modern organisation has the potential to apply environmental resource management with sustainability principles to achieve highly effective outcomes. To achieve sustainable development with environmental resource management an organisation should work within sustainability principles, including social and environmental accountability , long-term planning; a strong, shared vision; a holistic focus; devolved and consensus decision making; broad stakeholder engagement and justice; transparency measures; trust; and flexibility. To adjust to today's environment of quick social and ecological changes, some organizations have begun to experiment with new tools and concepts. Those that are more traditional and stick to hierarchical decision making have difficulty dealing with

13289-487: The most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. Many other undergraduate degrees include

13426-484: The need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses. At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had

13563-481: The notion of "thriving on chaos" (1987). As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context, many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Ecofeminism Ecofeminism

13700-400: The oppression of animals from feminist and ecofeminist analyses … is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both feminism (as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism." This puts into practice " the personal is political ", as many ecofeminists believe that "meat-eating is a form of patriarchal domination…that suggests a link between male violence and

13837-465: The organization. Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments. Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century. While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in

13974-484: The overall system must [permit] identification of an equilibrium between the environment and the economy." As such, economic policy makers began to incorporate the functions of the natural environment – or natural capital – particularly as a sink for wastes and for the provision of raw materials and amenities. Debate continues among economists as to how to account for natural capital, specifically whether resources can be replaced through knowledge and technology, or whether

14111-554: The phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization . Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In

14248-465: The phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express the same idea. As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life balance for self and others is an important management practice. Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making . It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices . Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by

14385-415: The plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman. These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers at every level resembles a pyramid. Each level

14522-582: The poor) to the oppression and domination of nature (animals, land, water, air, etc.). She argues that oppression, domination, exploitation, and colonization under Western patriarchal society has directly caused irreversible environmental damage. An activist and organizer, d'Eaubonne advocated the eradication of all social injustice, not just injustice against women and the environment . Influential early texts included: Women and Nature ( Susan Griffin 1978), The Death of Nature ( Carolyn Merchant 1980) and Gyn/Ecology ( Mary Daly 1978), which helped propel

14659-494: The pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi- mass production before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery. Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century. As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary. Businesses grew into large corporations and

14796-482: The private sector also need skills to manage collaboration within a dynamic social and political environment. Civil society comprises associations in which societies voluntarily organise themselves and which represent a wide range of interests and ties. These can include community-based organisations, indigenous peoples' organisations and non-government organisations (NGOs). Functioning through strong public pressure, civil society can exercise their legal rights against

14933-508: The profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law , Doctor of Medicine , and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs , Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg . However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as

15070-676: The public sector in environmental resource management is to provide professional judgement through skilled technicians on behalf of the public. With the increase of intractable environmental problems, the public sector has been led to examine alternative paradigms for managing environmental resources. This has resulted in the public sector working collaboratively with other sectors (including other governments, private and civil) to encourage sustainable natural resource management behaviours. The private sector comprises private corporations and non-profit institutions serving households. The private sector's traditional role in environmental resource management

15207-483: The relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms." "The pairing of significant uncertainty about the behaviour and response of ecological systems with urgent calls for near-term action constitutes a difficult reality, and a common lament" for many environmental resource managers . Scientific analysis of the environment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty. These include: structural uncertainty resulting from

15344-426: The reservation. Toxins contaminate water all over the world, but due to environmental racism , certain marginalized groups are exposed to a much higher amount. The Greening of Harlem Coalition is another example of an ecofeminist movement. In 1989, Bernadette Cozart founded the coalition, which is responsible for many urban gardens around Harlem . Cozart's goal is to turn vacant lots into community gardens . This

15481-434: The risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected. Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity ) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards ). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt . Slave owners through

15618-489: The same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions. Front-line managers typically provide: Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within

15755-403: The scope of ecofeminist analysis is dynamic, American author and ecofeminist Charlene Spretnak has offered one way of categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the study of political theory as well as history; 2) through the belief and study of nature-based religions ; 3) through environmentalism . While diverse ecofeminist perspectives have emerged from women activists and thinkers all over

15892-582: The semantic development of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Views on the definition and scope of management include: Management involves identifying the mission , objective, procedures , rules and manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise. Scholars have focused on the management of individual, organizational, and inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective communication : an enterprise environment (as opposed to

16029-427: The shareholders, the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing . The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in

16166-418: The social sciences. Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically driven by conceptions of human-nature relationships . Ethical aspects involve the cultural and social issues relating to the environment, and dealing with changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world (the rest of nature)," and so, there

16303-485: The source of domination over women and nature. Connections made between these subjects because of the contrast between masculinist values of production versus the reproduction of living relations. This ecofeminism may also be referred to as "social feminism", "socialist ecofeminism", or "Marxist ecofeminism". According to Carolyn Merchant, "Social ecofeminism advocates the liberation of women through overturning economic and social hierarchies that turn all aspects of life into

16440-417: The stability of ecological systems that humanity depends on. Socially, an increasing gap between rich and poor and the global North–South divide denies many access to basic human needs, rights, and education, leading to further environmental destruction. The planet's unstable condition is caused by many anthropogenic sources. As an exceptionally powerful contributing factor to social and environmental change,

16577-651: The steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day. Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation , production (economics) , and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization , quality-control procedures, cost-accounting , interchangeability of parts, and work-planning . Many of these aspects of management existed in

16714-455: The study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in

16851-443: The system it exists in. In context, sustainability implies that rather than competing for endless growth on a finite planet, development improves quality of life without necessarily consuming more resources. Sustainably managing environmental resources requires organizational change that instills sustainability values that portrays these values outwardly from all levels and reinforces them to surrounding stakeholders. The result should be

16988-409: The term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation . Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those being managed. A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. Low-level managers manage

17125-479: The top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance. Middle management

17262-431: The top weaknesses of CEOs were " mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO. The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors ) report to them or directly hire independent contractors ; for example, the board (through the audit committee ) typically selects the auditor . Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization but typically include

17399-482: The toxins. The Love Canal movement eventually led to the evacuation and relocation of nearly 800 families by the federal government . In 1980 and 1981, women like ecofeminist Ynestra King organized a peaceful protest at the Pentagon . Women stood, hand in hand, demanding equal rights (including social, economic, and reproductive rights ) as well as an end to militaristic actions taken by the government and exploitation of

17536-475: The two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act). The French word for housekeeping , ménagerie , derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon 's famous book Oeconomicus ( Ancient Greek : Οἰκονομικός ) on household matters and husbandry . The French word mesnagement (or ménagement ) influenced

17673-472: The unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental resource management is achieved without systems . Another example that diverges from top-down management is the implementation of community based co-management systems of governance. An example of this is community based subsistence fishing areas, such as is implemented in Ha'ena, Hawaii. Community based systems of governance allow for

17810-497: The various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat , Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached

17947-413: The very societal norms that feminism is trying to break. The ascribed essentialism actually reversed the political radicalism of ecofeminism by claiming that: Ecofeminist Noel Sturgeon says in an interview that what anti-essentialists fail to recognise is a strategy used to mobilize large and diverse groups of both theorists and activists. Additionally, according to Charlene Spretnak, modern ecofeminism

18084-594: The work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing

18221-420: The world, academic studies of ecofeminism have been dominated by North American universities. Thus, in the 1993 essay entitled "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health", authors Greta Gaard and Lori Gruen outline what they call the "ecofeminist framework". The essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to outlining the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. The framework

18358-450: Was $ 212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager ( chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased. In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that

18495-703: Was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model. Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced " mirrors for princes " books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in AD 900. Other examples include

18632-617: Was initiated by environmental and political activist Professor Wangari Maathai . It is a rural tree planting program led by women, which Maathai designed to help prevent desertification in the area. The program created a ' green belt ' of at least 1,000 trees around villages, and gave participants the ability to take charge in their communities. In later years, the Green Belt Movement was an advocate for informing and empowering citizens through seminars for civic and environmental education, as well as holding national leaders accountable for their actions and instilling agency in citizens. The work of

18769-433: Was intended to establish ways of viewing and understanding our current global situations so that we can better understand how we arrived at this point and what may be done to ameliorate the ills. Building on the work of North American scholars Rosemary Ruether and Carolyn Merchant , Gaard and Gruen argue that there are four sides to this framework: These four factors have brought Western cultures to what ecofeminists see as

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