96-656: Enkapune Ya Muto , also known as Twilight Cave , is a site spanning the late Middle Stone Age to the Late Stone Age on the Mau Escarpment of Kenya . This time span has allowed for further study of the transition from the Middle Stone Age to the Late Stone Age. In particular, the changes in lithic and pottery industries can be tracked over these time periods as well as transitions from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to
192-403: A herding lifestyle. Beads made of perforated ostrich egg shells found at the site have been dated to 40,000 years ago. The beads found at the site represent the early human use of personal ornaments . Inferences pertaining to climate and environment changes during the pre-Holocene and Holocene period have been made based from faunal remains based in this site. Enkapune Ya Muto is located on
288-606: A 10 cm stratum directly underneath BS1. No pottery was found in this layer, but abundant Eburran lithics and bone were found. Despite the abundance of bones, they were not well preserved. Cattle and caprines as well as wild fauna are found in this layer, but cattle were more rare. This is cattle's first appearance at Enkapune Ya Muto. The wild fauna found consisted of oribi , steinbok , reedbuck , bush duiker , bushbuck , and serval . RBL2.1 contained Salasun, Nderit , and Ileret ceramics aged at 3000 to 4900 BP. Eburran lithics, artifacts and well preserved bone were also found throughout
384-519: A crucial element of the symbolic behavioral package in the MSA. Although the advent of anatomical physical modernity cannot confidently be linked with palaeoneurological change, it does seem probable that hominid brains evolved through the same selection processes as other body parts. Genes that promoted a capacity for symbolism may have been selected for, suggesting that the foundations for symbolic culture may well be grounded in biology. However, behavior that
480-458: A greater ability to manufacture symbolic artifacts and social networks. According to the research team in Jebel Irhoud , the discovery means that Homo sapiens —not members of a rival or ancestor species ( Homo heidelbergensis , Homo naledi )—were the ones who left behind Middle Stone Age hand tools that have since been unearthed all over Africa. Numerous sites in southern Africa reflect
576-463: A mental template of the process they would follow), possibly using pyrotechnology to facilitate fat extraction from bone, using a probable recipe to produce the compound, and the use of shell containers for mixing and storage for later use. Ochre is reported from some early MSA sites, for example at Kapthurin and Twin Rivers, and is common after c. 100 ka. Barham argues that even if some of this ochre
672-588: A new level of innovation in their increased efficacy and more complex manufacturing process. The ability to conceptualize beyond the mere reduction of stone cores demonstrates cognitive flexibility, and the use of glue, which was often processed with ochre, to attach flakes to hafts demonstrates an understanding of chemical changes that can be utilized beyond the simple use of color. Adhesives were used to construct hafted tools by 70ka at Sibudu Cave in South Africa. Many of these adhesives were made from local conifers of
768-402: A receding of the montane forest previously near the shelter, as both rely on open grasslands to survive. Along with these wild fauna, impala , hartebest , oribi, giant forest hog, steinbok, mountain reedbuck, bushbuck, black-backed jackal , spotted hyena , wild cat, and serval cat remains were also found. Small bovids were present but not yet domesticated. The bohor reedbuck in lower strata was
864-450: A remarkable advance. These data have been used to support theories of social and stylistic development throughout the MSA. In southern Africa, we see the technocomplexes of Howiesons Poort and Stillbay , named after the sites at which they were first discovered. Several others have not been dated or have been dated unreliably; these include the Lupemban technocomplex of central Africa,
960-490: A slightly raised back, and long neck and limbs. The glossy, yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin, throat, underparts and rump . Only males possess horns ; the thin, straight horns, 8–18 centimetres (3.1–7.1 in) long, are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base. Typically diurnal , the oribi is active mainly during the day. Small herds of up to four members are common; males defend their group's territory , 25–100 hectares (62–247 acres) large. It
1056-446: A thorough, albeit significantly overlapping, discussion of behavioral modernity. As early Homo sapiens began to diversify the ecological zones that they inhabited during the MSA, the archaeological record associated with these zones begins to show evidence for regional continuities. These continuities are significant for a number of reasons. The expansion of Homo sapiens into various ecological zones demonstrates an ability to adapt to
SECTION 10
#17328547449231152-575: A variety of environmental contexts including marine environments, savanna grasslands, relatively arid deserts, and forests. This adaptability is reflected in MSA artifacts found in these zones. These artifacts display stylistic variability depending on zone. During the Acheulian, which spanned from 1.5 million years ago to 300 thousand years ago, lithic technology displayed incredible homogeneity throughout all ecological niches. MSA technologies, with their evidence for regional variability and continuity, represent
1248-707: A variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10–100 centimetres (3.9–39.4 in) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes, up to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above the sea level. Recently burnt areas often attract groups of oribi. The choice of habitat depends on the availability of cover needed to escape the eyes of predators. Population densities typically vary between 2 and 10 individuals per km ; however, densities as high as 45 individuals per km have been recorded in tropical grasslands that receive over 110 centimetres (43 in) of annual rainfall and open floodplains. The oribi's range overlaps with those of larger grazers such as
1344-531: A variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10–100 centimetres (3.9–39.4 in) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes, up to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above the sea level. This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution, ranging from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape ( South Africa ). The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by
1440-404: A variety of other dwarf antelopes , including Dorcatragus (beira), Madoqua (dik dik), Neotragus , Oreotragus (klipspringer) and Raphicerus . In 1963, German mammalogist Theodor Haltenorth separated the oribi and Raphicerus into a new tribe, Raphicerini; later on, zoologist Jonathan Kingdon assigned the oribi to Ourebini, a tribe of its own. The common name "oribi" comes from
1536-557: A way that best fits a scenario in which historical contingencies and environmental rather than cognitive changes are seen as main drivers". There have been two migration events out of Africa. The first was the expansion of H. erectus into Eurasia approximately 1.9 to 1.7 million years ago, and the second, by H. sapiens began during the MSA by 80 – 50 ka MSA out of Africa to Asia, Australia and Europe. Perhaps only in small numbers initially, but by 30 ka they had replaced Neanderthals and H. erectus . Each of these migrations represent
1632-657: A wide range of environments, including coastal and inland areas of southern and eastern Africa, and in at least one case MSA foragers were exploiting high-altitude glaciated environments, at Fincha Habera in Ethiopia. This, however, is not the only evidence of innovativeness that can be seen in early Homo sapiens. The development of new, regionally relevant tools, such as those used for the collection of marine resources seen at Abdur, Ethiopia, Pinnacle Point Cave, South Africa, and Blombos Cave , South Africa. The use of fire demonstrates another innovative aspect of human behavior when it
1728-723: Is diurnal (active mainly during the day), though some activity may also be observed at night. It rests in cover during rain events. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry ; polygyny tends to prevail as the female-to-male ratio increases. A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk, as it leads to formation of groups as an anti-predator measure. Small herds of up to four members are also common. Males defend their group's territory , 25–100 hectares (62–247 acres) large; female members may also show some aggression and drive away intruders. A study showed that
1824-537: Is a relatively minor threat, since the oribi shows some tolerance to hunting. Nevertheless, the steep fall of 92% in oribi populations in Comoé National Park ( Côte d'Ivoire ) has been attributed to poaching. Numbers have also declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock. The oribi occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range, such as: Gashaka Gumti National Park in Nigeria ,
1920-465: Is a small antelope found in eastern, southern and western Africa. The sole member of its genus, it was described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1783. While this is the only member in the genus Ourebia , eight subspecies are identified. The oribi reaches nearly 50–67 centimetres (20–26 in) at the shoulder and weighs 12–22 kilograms (26–49 lb). It possesses
2016-486: Is a small, slender antelope; it reaches nearly 50–67 centimetres (20–26 in) at the shoulder and weighs 12–22 kilograms (26–49 lb). The head-and-body length is typically between 92 and 110 centimetres (36 and 43 in). Sexually dimorphic , males are slightly smaller than females (except for O. o. ourebi , in which females are smaller). This antelope features a slightly raised back, and long neck and limbs. The glossy, yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with
SECTION 20
#17328547449232112-474: Is an upper bound guess. Other labs have produced dates of 2330-2560 BP. **: Has also been dated to 5860 BP, but 6350 BP is viewed as more reliable as the sample size was larger. ***: Multiple earlier start dates have been found, but due to small sample size, they are viewed as unreliable. ****: Earlier dates have been measured but the samples leading to such dates spent extensive time in storage before testing and were likely contaminated. The Iron Age level
2208-541: Is attributed to the Late Stone Age Sakutiek Industry. These tools mostly consist of convex end scrapers, outils écaillés and some backed microliths. Some typically Middle Stone Age tools are present as well such as parti-bifacially flaked small knives and discoidal cores. Thirteen complete ostrich eggshell beads , 12 bead preforms, and 593 shells fragments were found in this layer. Charcoal found in DBL1.2 dated
2304-428: Is born; births peak from November to December in southern Africa. The newborn is kept in concealment for nearly a month; the mother pays regular visits to her calf to suckle it for nearly half an hour. Males may guard their offspring from predators and keep away other males. Weaning takes place at four to five months. The oribi lives for 8 to 12 years in the wild, and for 12 to 14 years in captivity. The oribi occurs in
2400-705: Is difficult to find beyond 40ka, and indirect evidence is essentially intangible, thus technological evidence is the most fruitful of the three. Today there is widespread agreement among archaeologists that the world's first art and symbolic culture dates to the African Middle Stone Age. Some of the most striking artifacts, including engraved pieces of red ochre, were manufactured at Blombos Cave in South Africa 75,000 years ago. Pierced and ochred Nassarius shell beads were also recovered from Blombos, with even earlier examples (Middle Stone Age, Aterian ) from
2496-535: Is during this time that we see evidence of the origins of modern human behavior . According to McBrearty and Brooks, there are four features that are characteristic of modern human behavior: abstract thinking, the ability to plan and strategize, "behavioral, economic and technological innovativeness," and symbolic behavior. Many of these aspects of modern human behavior can be broken down into more specific categories, including art, personal adornment, technological advancement, yet these four overarching categories allow for
2592-575: Is mainly characterized by its Lanet Tradition pottery. The base of layer, however, is aceramic. The transition period to the Elmenteitan occurs approximately 45-55 cm below the top of the Iron Age level and is dated to 1295 BP . This date of transition is consistent with other Rift Valley sites. The Elmenteitan level is 60-100 cm with high levels of wood ash and silts. Elmeinteitan stone tools, made of obsidian specifically, and pottery are found throughout
2688-583: Is no evidence of crossover in this region. ESA Acheulean sites are well documented across West Africa (except from the most tropical regions) but mostly remain undated. A few late Acheulean sites ("MSA" in the sense of late Acheulean, not Levallois) have been dated. Middle Pleistocene (pre 126 kya) sites are known from the northern Sahelian zones, while Late Pleistocene (post 126 kya) sites are known both from northern and southern West Africa. Unlike elsewhere in Africa, MSA sites appear to persist until very late, down to
2784-514: Is primarily a grazer , and prefers fresh grasses but also browses occasionally. A seasonal breeder, the time when mating occurs varies geographically. Unlike all other small antelopes, oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems, depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry . Gestation lasts for six to seven months, following which a single calf is born; births peak from November to December in southern Africa. Weaning takes place at four to five months. The oribi occurs in
2880-697: Is the lowest Eburran Phase 4 stratum. It contains high artifact density, in particular of obsidian, and well-preserved bones, though the sample size is small. According to Ambrose, RBL3 may represent a period of 30,000 years of sporadic occupation. RBL3's faunal assemblage is not quite as diverse as DBS's faunal assemblage. The present wild fauna are giant forest hog, roan, bushpig , bohor reedbuck, bush duiker, buffalo, eland, bushbuck, lesser kudu, bovids, black-backed jackal, spotted hyaena, and serval cats. Most bones are cranial, suggesting transportation of full carcasses. The DBL layer has about 69,000 pieces of flaked stone, but very few identifiable bones. The lithic industry
2976-418: Is used in order to create stronger tools, such as the heated silcrete at Blombos, Howiesons Poort and Still Bay, and the heat treated bone tools from Still Bay. Hafted tools are further representative of human innovation. The large cutting tools of the Acheulian technocomplex become smaller, as more complex tools are better suited towards the needs of highly diversified environments. Composite tools represent
Enkapune Ya Muto - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-464: The African buffalo , hippopotamus , hartebeest , Thomson's gazelle and topi . These separate species often occur in close proximity to each other, increasing predator vigilance. This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution; it occurs mainly in eastern, southern and western Africa, ranging from Nigeria and Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and
3168-1071: The Afrikaans name for the animal, oorbietjie . In a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data in 2013, Eva Verena Bärmann (of the University of Cambridge ) and colleagues showed that the oribi is the sister taxon to all other antilopines. The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study. Oribi ( Ourebia ourebi ) Saiga ( Saiga tatarica ) Gerenuk ( Litocranius walleri ) Springbok ( Antidorcas marsupialis ) Eudorcas Nanger Gazella Blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra ) Procapra Raphicerus Madoqua Dorcatragus The following eight subspecies are identified: Of these, zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identify O. o. hastata , O. o. montana , O. o. ourebi and O. o. quadriscopa as independent species in their 2011 publication Ungulate Taxonomy . The oribi
3264-640: The Bambatan in southeast Africa, 70–80ka, and the Aterian technocomplex of northern Africa, 160–90ka. Evidence of abstract thinking can be seen in the archaeological record as early as the Acheulean–Middle Stone Age transition, approximately 300,000–250,000 years ago. This transition involves a shift in stone tool technology from Mode 2, Acheulean tools, to Mode 3 and 4, which include blades and microliths. The manufacture of these tools requires planning and
3360-500: The Eastern Cape ( South Africa ). It is feared to be extinct in Burundi . The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. The total population (as of 2008) is estimated at 750,000. However, the subspecies O. o. haggardi is listed as Vulnerable because, as of 2008, the total population is estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals, and is feared to be declining. Hunting
3456-460: The Eburran Phase 5 Industry. BS1 is the 6 cm uppermost Eburran Horizon. Ceramics, dated to 2700 and 3000 BP, are not identifiable as a known tradition, but the lithic tools are attributed to Eburran Phase 5. While the upper part of the layer has few of these artifacts, the lower part has a higher frequency of them. This layer contains bones and teeth of domestic caprines after 3000 BP. By 3280 BP,
3552-655: The Howiesons Poort (c. 70–55 ka) is indicative of modern human behavior . A family basis to foraging groups, color symbolism and the reciprocal exchange of artifacts and the formal organization of living space are, he suggests, further evidence for modernity in the MSA. Lyn Wadley et al. have argued that the complexity of the skill needed to process the heat-treated compound glue (gum and red ochre) used to haft spears would seem to argue for continuity between modern human cognition and that of humans 70,000 BP at Sibudu Cave . In 2008, an ochre processing workshop likely for
3648-457: The IUCN ; numbers have declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock. The scientific name of the oribi is Ourebia ourebi . The sole member of its genus, the oribi is placed under the family Bovidae . The species was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782. It was formerly included in the tribe Neotragini , that comprised
3744-680: The Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa. Backed pieces from the Twin Rivers and Kalambo Falls sites in Zambia , dated at sometime between 300 and 140,000 years, likewise indicate a suite of new behaviors. A high level of technical competence is also indicated for the c. 280 ka blades recovered from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya . The stone tool technology in use during
3840-567: The Mau Escarpment above the Naivasha basin in the Central Rift Valley . Underneath the shelter is a steep 2400-meter drop into a gully located on the west side of the Rift Valley. This area has large deposits of volcanic geological features. In particular, obsidian is very common. Two major excavations have been done at Enkapune Ya Muto. In total, 18 1-m squares in the northern section over
3936-541: The Middle Paleolithic of Europe, especially due to their roughly contemporaneous time span; however, the Middle Paleolithic of Europe represents an entirely different hominin population, Homo neanderthalensis , than the MSA of Africa, which did not have Neanderthal populations. Additionally, current archaeological research in Africa has yielded much evidence to suggest that modern human behavior and cognition
Enkapune Ya Muto - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-527: The Nasampolai Industry were the main artifact found. These blades are large-backed but do not have the early LSA convex end scraper. Red ochre has been found on the modified side of the blades. Evidence of wind-deflation suggests a long period of little to no occupation prior to 40,000 BP. The only faunal assemblage to be found were bovids, hyrax , and roan. RBL4 is a 1.2 m thick layer that has low densities of both bone and flaked stone. What flaked stone
4128-760: The Omo Kibish Formation , the Herto Member of the Bouri Formation , and Mumba Cave contain fossil evidence to support this conclusion as well. There have been a number of theories proposed regarding the development of modern human behavior, but in recent years the mosaic approach has been the most favored perspective in regards to the MSA, especially when taken in consideration with the archaeological evidence. Some scholars including Klein have argued for discontinuity, while others including McBrearty and Brooks have argued that cognitive advances can be detected in
4224-686: The Taforalt Caves . In addition, ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found at Diepkloof , South Africa, beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old, and the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago. At Panga ya Saidi in Kenya, marine shell beads appear perhaps as early as 67,000 years ago and certainly by 33,000 years ago, and engraved ochre by 48,500 years ago. Evidence for
4320-526: The African continent, conventionally divided into five regions: northern Africa, comprising parts of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya; eastern Africa, stretching roughly from the highlands of Ethiopia to the southern part of Kenya; central Africa, stretching from the borders of Tanzania and Kenya to include Angola; southern Africa, which includes the numerous cave sites of South Africa; and western Africa. In northern and western Africa,
4416-464: The Central African site of Katanda dating to about 90,000 years ago. The arrows and needle, along with hide working tools, from Sibudu Cave are seen as evidence of making weapons with compound heat treated gluing technology. Evidence also exists for the systematic heat treating of silcrete stone to increase its flake-ability for the purpose of toolmaking, beginning approximately 164,000 years ago at
4512-482: The Central Rift Valley of Kenya constituted a major center for behavioural innovation. It is likely that the large terrestrial mammal biomass of these regions supported substantial human populations with subsistence and manufacturing patterns similar to those of ethnographically known foragers. Archaeological evidence from eastern Africa extending from the Rift Valley from Ethiopia to northern Tanzania represents
4608-542: The Holocene boundary (12 kya), pointing to the possibility of late survival of archaic humans , and late hybridization with H. sapiens in West Africa. Furthermore, such results highlight significant spatiotemporal cultural variability and suggest that long inter-group cultural differences played a major role in later stages of human evolution in Africa. Early blades have been documented as far back as 550–500,000 years in
4704-438: The MSA and that the origin of our species is linked with the appearance of Middle Stone Age technology at 250–300 ka. The earliest remains of Homo sapiens date back to approximately 300 thousand years ago in Africa. The continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers . In the archaeological record of both eastern Africa and southern Africa, there is immense variability associated with Homo sapiens sites, and it
4800-586: The Middle Stone Age is presented in Marwick (2003) in which the distance between the source of raw material and location in which a stone artifact was found was compared throughout sites containing early stone artifacts. Five Middle Stone Age sites contained distances between 140–340 km and have been interpreted, when compared with ethnographic data, that these distances were made possible through exchange networks. Barham also views syntactic language as one aspect of behavior that in fact allowed MSA people to settle in
4896-607: The Middle Stone Age shows a mosaic of techniques. Beginning approximately 300 kya, the large cutting tools of the Achuelian are gradually displaced by Levallois prepared core technologies, also widely used by Neanderthals during the European Middle Palaeolithic . As the MSA progresses, highly varied technocomplexes become common throughout Africa and include pointed artifacts, blades, retouched flakes, end and side scrapers, grinding stones, and even bone tools. However,
SECTION 50
#17328547449234992-482: The Middle Stone Age shows a pattern of innovation followed by disappearance. This occurs with technology such as the manufacture of shell beads , arrows and hide working tools including needles, and gluing technology. These pieces of evidence provide a counterpoint to the classic "Out of Africa" scenario in which increasing complexity accumulated during the Middle Stone Age. Instead, it has been argued that such technological innovations "appear, disappear and re-appear in
5088-487: The South African site of Pinnacle Point and becoming common there for the creation of microlithic tools at about 72,000 years ago. Characteristically modern human behaviors, such as the making of shell beads, bone tools and arrows, and the use of ochre pigment, are evident at Panga ya Saidi in Kenya by 78,000–67,000 years ago. Evidence of early stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of Homo sapiens ),
5184-566: The ability to plan subsistence strategies based on this awareness demonstrates an ability to think beyond the present tense and act upon this knowledge. This planning depth is also seen in the presence of exotic raw materials at a variety of sites throughout the MSA. Procurement of local raw materials would have been a simple task to accomplish, yet MSA sites regularly contain raw materials that were obtained from sources over 100 km away, and sometimes farther than 300 km. Obtaining raw materials from this distance would require an awareness of
5280-480: The actual end of the Achaeulean around 130 kya is taken as the beginning of the MSA. The MSA so defined is associated with the gradual replacement of archaic humans by anatomically modern humans . In a different convention, MSA refers to sites characterized by the use of Levallois methods for flake production, to the exclusion of Acheulean sites with large cleavers or handaxes. Following McBrearty and Tryon (2006),
5376-613: The addition of impala, Thomson's gazelle , dik-dik , and golden jackal, and without the buffalo, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena, and golden jackal. The presence of the golden jackal is notable because it suggests the surrounding area was a low-altitude savanna. Curtis Marean notes that Lake Naivasha had begun to retreat during the time period of RBL2.3, likely creating a "short-grass" habitat. RBL2.3 and DBS have been dated within 500 years of each other between 5265 and 5785 BP. DBS has low artifact density but high, well-preserved bone density. DBS showed high wild faunal diversity, with all
5472-407: The diet; preferred varieties include Andropogon , Eulalia , Hyparrhenia , Loudetia , Pennisetum and Themeda species. Mineral licks are also visited regularly. Oribi have been observed feeding on flowers and Boletus mushrooms. Groups of oribi congregate in the rainy season, when grasses are abundant. Both sexes become sexually mature at 10 to 14 months. A seasonal breeder,
5568-659: The dominant reedbuck, but the mountain reedbuck becomes the dominant in this stratum. The earliest Holocene period occupation is demarcated by Eburran Phase 4 strata. RBL2.2 and RBL2.3 are very similar in contents. Both contain Eburran Phase 4 lithics, high artifact density, and well-preserved bones. Wild fauna in RBL2.2 consisted of hartebeests, oribi, steinboks, bohor reedbucks, bush duikers, buffalo, bushbucks, bovids, cheetahs , black-backed jackals, spotted hyaenas, wild cats, and serval cats. RBL2.3 contained very similar wild fauna, with
5664-473: The earliest MSA sites. Faunal preservation, however, is not spectacular, and standardization in site excavation and lithic classification was, until recently, lacking. Unlike northern Africa, shifts between lithic technologies were not nearly as pronounced, likely due to more favorable climatic conditions that would have allowed for more continuous occupation of sites. Central Africa reflects similar patterning to eastern Africa, yet more archaeological research of
5760-584: The excavation was 5.54 m. Stanley H. Ambrose's Chronology of the Later Stone Age and Food Production in East Africa splits Enkapune Ya Muto into 18 main stratums. Radiocarbon dating has been used to estimate the ages of these layers based on artifacts and fauna in Enkapune Ya Muto. Some dates are less reliable than others due to small sample sizes or contamination from long periods of storage. *: This
5856-454: The faunal assemblage is taken over by domestic caprines. Unlike the Elmenteitan period, animals over 20 months old show a large frequency drop, suggesting culling almost always happened at that age. All bones found in this stratum showed signs of post-depositional burning. Due to the low lithic artifact and bone density, Ambrose suggests that the site underwent low intensity occupation. RBL1 is
SECTION 60
#17328547449235952-420: The form of shellfish exploitation for food. Based on his analysis of the MSA bovid assemblage at Klasies , Milo reports MSA people were formidable hunters and that their social behavior patterns approached those of modern humans. Deacon maintains that the management of plant food resources through deliberate burning of the veld to encourage the growth of plants with corms or tubers in the southern Cape during
6048-610: The four characteristics of behavioral modernity. Blombos Cave , South Africa contains personal ornaments and what are presumed to be the tools used for the production of artistic imagery, as well as bone tools. Still Bay and Howieson's Poort contain variable tool technologies. These different types of assemblages allow researchers to extrapolate behaviors that would likely be associated with such technologies, such as shifts in foraging behaviors, which are further supported by faunal data at these sites. Oribi See text The oribi ( / ˈ ɔː r ə b i / ; Ourebia ourebi )
6144-473: The genus Podocarpus , using a process based on distillation. Other technological innovations of the period include specialized projectile weapons found at various sites in Middle Stone Age Africa such as: bone and stone arrowheads at South African sites such as Sibudu Cave (along with an early bone needle also found at Sibudu) dating approximately 60,000–70,000 years ago, and bone harpoons at
6240-613: The gradual displacement of Acheulian by MSA technologies is further supported by this layering and contemporaneous placement, as well as by the earliest appearance of MSA technologies at Gademotta and the latest Acheulian technologies at the Bouri Formation of Ethiopia, dated to 154 to 160 kya. This suggests a possible overlap of 100–150 thousand years. Late Acheulean artefacts associated with Homo sapiens have been found in South African cave sites. The Cave of Hearths and Montague Cave in South Africa contain evidence of Acheulian technologies, as well as later MSA technologies, however there
6336-461: The increased flexibility of the genus Homo to survive in widely varied climates. Based on the measurement of a large number of human skulls a recent study supports a central/southern African origin for Homo sapiens as this region shows the highest intra-population diversity in phenotypic measurements. Genetic data supports this conclusion. However, there is genetic evidence to suggest that dispersal out of Africa began in eastern Africa. Sites such as
6432-509: The largest archaeological evidence of the shift from the Late Acheulian to the Middle Stone Age tool technologies. This transition is characterized by stratigraphic layering of Acheulian stone tools, a bifacial handaxe technology, underneath and even contemporaneous with MSA technologies, such as Levallois tools, flakes, flaked tools, pointed flakes, smaller bifaces that are projectile in form, and, on rare occasions, hafted tools. Evidence of
6528-588: The layer to about 35,800 BP, and ostrich eggshells were dated DBL1.3 to 39,900 BP. Such a large amount of ostrich eggshell beads and evidence of manufacturing suggests a period of high occupation. This is further supported by the faunal assemblage being highly fragmented seemingly by trampling or compaction. The only faunal assemblages found belonged to bovids, baboons , cane rats, and eland. The GG1 and GG2 are interspersed with OL layers and overall have an average thickness of 1.15 m. Very few artifacts or identifiable bones were found in this layer. Obsidian lithic tools of
6624-439: The layer. Relative to bone density, there is a high artifact density, which Ambrose suggests may be due to high occupation and trampling of the bones. The first domesticated caprines at Enkapune Ya Muto were found in the middle of the layer dated to 4000 BP. The first pottery at the site was found at the base of the layer. Most of the faunal assemblage was dominated by wild fauna. The presence of warthog and cheetah remains suggests
6720-427: The making of paints by a complex process also exists dating to 100,000 years ago in South Africa, and for the use of pigments in Kenya dating to about 320,000 years ago. A series of innovations have been documented by 170–160,000 years ago at the site of Pinnacle Point 13B on the southern Cape coast of South Africa . This includes the oldest confirmed evidence for the utilization of ochre and marine resources in
6816-450: The more diversified toolkit of the Middle Stone Age, as well as in the subsistence patterns of the period. As MSA hominins began to migrate into a range of different ecological zones, it became necessary to base hunting strategies around seasonally available resources. Awareness of seasonality is evident in the faunal remains found at temporary sites. In less forgiving ecological zones, this awareness would have been essential for survival and
6912-470: The most difficult aspects of modern human behavior to distinguish archaeologically. When searching for evidence of symbolic behavior in the MSA, there are three lines of evidence that can be considered: direct evidence reflecting concrete examples of symbols; indirect evidence reflecting behaviors that would have been used to convey symbolic thought; and technological evidence reflecting the tools and skills that would have been used to produce art. Direct evidence
7008-427: The number of females that visit the male's territory depends on the appearance (particularly the symmetry) of the male's horns. Males mark vegetation and soil in their territories by preorbital gland secretions and excrement; the intensity of marking increases with the number of male neighbours. Dominant males tend to have greater access to females in and around the territory than other males. An important feature of
7104-456: The possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad ), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens . Symbolic behavior is, perhaps, one of
7200-440: The production of paints was uncovered dating to ca. 100,000 years ago at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Analysis shows that a liquefied pigment-rich mixture was produced and stored in the two abalone shells, and that ochre, bone, charcoal, grindstones and hammer-stones also formed a composite part of the toolkits. Evidence for the complexity of the task includes procuring and combining raw materials from various sources (implying they had
7296-528: The region is certainly required. Southern Africa consists of many cave sites, most of which show very punctuated starts and stops in stone tool technology. Research in southern Africa has been continuous and quite standardized, allowing for reliable comparisons between sites in the region. Much of the archaeological evidence for the origins of modern human behavior is traced back to sites in this region, including Blombos Cave , Howiesons Poort , Still Bay , and Pinnacle Point . The term "Middle Stone Age" (MSA)
7392-441: The resources, a perceived value in the resources, whether it be functional or symbolic, and, possibly, the ability to organize an exchange network in order to obtain the materials. The ability to expand into new environments throughout Africa and, ultimately, the world, displays a level of adaptability and, consequently, innovativeness that is often seen as characteristic of behavioral modernity. Middle Stone Age sites are found in
7488-431: The rock shelter were excavated. The first excavation, by Stanley Ambrose , occurred in 1982. This excavation revealed Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age artifacts. The excavation was made up of a 2 x 2 m test pit and a 1 x 4 m step trench. A later 10 m excavation, also by Stanley Ambrose occurred in 1987 to gain more Late Pleistocene data and find dates for the Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age transition. The depth of
7584-487: The social behaviour of oribi is the "dung ceremony", in which all animals form temporary dung middens. Oribi at least three months old have been observed giving out one to three alarm whistles on sensing danger. These whistles are more common in adults than in juveniles, and males appear to whistle more. Common predators include carnivorans such as jackals . Primarily a grazer , the oribi prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally. Grasses can constitute up to 90% of
7680-504: The stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site of Gademotta , and date to around 279,000 years ago. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie , of the early emergence of innovations and behaviors including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and
7776-700: The stratum. This level also contains well-preserved stained bone throughout. There is evidence of cattle and caprines . The bovid and caprine remains found show a gradual drop in the frequency of animals over the age of 20 months old, suggesting culling the animals at a later age when compared to Ngamuriak animals. The BSS and HTL layers have very similar, but not well understood contents. Both contained pottery of an "undefined archaeological culture" and very few bones or artifacts. While bone sample sizes were difficult to analyze due to their small size, caprines and cattle were found to be present, while wild fauna were not found. Multiple stratum contain artifacts attributed to
7872-485: The term "early MSA" (EMSA) refers to sites predating the 126 kya interglacial, and "later MSA" (LMSA) refers to site younger than 126 kya. In this convention, Fauresmith sites of 500 to 300 kya are within the ESA, and the MSA begins after about 280 kya and is largely associated with H. sapiens , the earliest reliably dated MSA site in East Africa being Gademotta in Ethiopia, at 276 kya. The Middle Awash valley of Ethiopia and
7968-409: The time when mating occurs varies geographically. Mating may peak in the rainy season (August to September). When a female enters oestrus (which lasts for four to six days), she seeks the company of males. During courtship, the male will pursue the female, test her urine to check if she is in oestrus and lick her rump and flanks. Gestation lasts for six to seven months, following which a single calf
8064-419: The tips and ringed at the base. The maximum horn length, 19.1 centimetres (7.5 in), was recorded in 1998 from Malawi . The oribi has at least six different, well-developed scent glands (such as the prominent preorbital glands near the eyes). The body has several modifications, such as the large fossae below the eyes, to accommodate such a large number of glands. Females have four teats. The oribi
8160-544: The tropical forest environments of what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Many authors have speculated that at the core of this symbolic explosion, and in tandem, was the development of syntactic language that evolved through a highly specialized social learning system providing the means for semantically unbounded discourse. Syntax would have played a key role in this process and its full adoption could have been
8256-494: The understanding of how striking a stone will produce different flaking patterns. This requires abstract thought, one of the hallmarks of modern human behavior. The shift from large cutting tools in the Acheulian to smaller and more diversified toolkits in the MSA represents a better cognitive and conceptual understanding of flintknapping, as well as the potential functional effects of distinct tool types. The ability to plan and strategize, much like abstract thinking, can be seen in
8352-690: The use of blades (associated mainly with the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe) is seen at many sites as well. In Africa, blades may have been used during the transition from the Early Stone Age to the Middle Stone Age onwards. Finally, during the later part of the Middle Stone Age, microlithic technologies aimed at producing replaceable components of composite hafted tools are seen from at least 70 ka at sites such as Pinnacle Point and Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa. Artifact technology during
8448-450: The wet-dry cycles of the modern Sahara desert has led to fruitful archaeological sites followed by completely barren soil and vice versa. Preservation in these two regions can vary, yet the sites that have been uncovered document the adaptive nature of early humans to climatically unstable environments. Eastern Africa represents some of the most reliable dates, due to the use of radiocarbon dating on volcanic ash deposits, as well as some of
8544-407: The white chin, throat, underparts and rump . The bushy tail, brown to black on the outside, has white insides (except in O. o. hastata , that has a completely black tail). The subspecies show some variation in colouration; O. o. ourebi is a rich rufous, while O. o. hastata is yellower. Only males possess horns ; the thin, straight horns, 8–18 centimetres (3.1–7.1 in) long, are smooth at
8640-456: The wild fauna found in RBL2.3 being present aside from the dik-dik , cheetah, and golden jackal. In addition, roan, bushpig, buffalo, lesser kudu , black-backed jackal, and golden jackal remains were also found. Marean uses these faunal remains to claim that the Holocene drying trend began during the formation of DBS. Ambrose further says that decreased rainfall and an approaching forest ecotone may have led to increased occupation intensity. RBL3
8736-437: Was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone Age and the Late Stone Age . It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50–25,000 years ago. The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550–500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA. The MSA is often mistakenly understood to be synonymous with
8832-571: Was beginning to develop much earlier in Africa during the MSA than it was in Europe during the Middle Paleolithic. The MSA is associated with both anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) as well as archaic Homo sapiens , sometimes referred to as Homo helmei . Early physical evidence comes from the Gademotta Formation in Ethiopia, the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa. There are MSA archaeological sites from across
8928-588: Was found was attributed to the Endingi Industry based on flakes with faceted platforms and radial dorsal scar patterns. Scrapers, outils écaillés, and backed microliths were mainly found. An ochre -stained lower grindstone was also found. Marean notes that RBL4's thickness likely indicates a sparse occupation of the site "during early oxygen isotope stage 3 or stage 4." Hartebeest, zebra , bushpig, eland, bushbuck, and bovid remains were found in this layer. Middle Stone Age The Middle Stone Age (or MSA )
9024-491: Was mediated by symbolism may have only come later, even though this physical capacity was already in place much earlier. Skoyles and Sagan, for example, argue that human brain expansion by increasing the prefrontal cortex would have created a brain capable of symbolizing its previously non-symbolic cognition, and that this process, slow to begin with, increasingly accelerated during the last 100,000 years. Symbolically mediated behavior may then feed back upon this process by creating
9120-566: Was proposed to the African Archaeological Congress by Goodwin and Van Riet Lowe in 1929. The use of these terms was officially abandoned in 1965, although the term remains in use in the context of sub-Saharan Africa , beginning with a transitional late Acheulean period known as the Fauresmith industry . The Fauresmith industry is poorly dated, according to Herries (2011) beginning around 511–435 kya. This time, rather than
9216-625: Was used in a symbolic, color-related role then this abstraction could not have worked without language. Ochre, he suggests, could be one proxy for trying to find the emergence of language. Formal bone tools are frequently associated with modern behaviour by archaeologists. Sophisticated bone harpoons manufactured at Katanda, West Africa at c. 90 ka and bone tools from Blombos Cave dated at c. 77 ka may then also serve as examples of material culture associated with modern language. Language has been suggested to be necessary to maintain exchange networks. Evidence of some form of exchange networks during
#922077