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61-811: The removal of the first of the two dams, the Elwha Dam , began in September 2011 and was completed ahead of schedule in March 2012. Removal of the second dam, the Glines Canyon Dam , was completed on August 26, 2014. Historically, the Elwha River was one of the few rivers in the contiguous United States that supported all of the anadromous salmonid species native to the Pacific Northwest. Ten stocks of anadromous salmon and trout species are known to have been present in

122-563: A 40-year flood event four years before dam removal. The dams had virtually eliminated bed-material sediment supply to the river downstream, forming large deltas upstream of each reservoir. Once released, the sediment travelled downstream to the mouth of the river, where a new estuary is believed to be forming. These geomorphic alterations have important ecological implications, affecting aquatic habitat structure, benthic fauna , salmonid spawning and rearing potential, and riparian vegetation. The process of hydrochory after dam removal has increased

183-465: A challenge is matching swimming performance data to hydrodynamic measurements. Swim tests rarely use the same protocol and the output is either a single-point measurement or a bulk velocity. In contrast, physical and numerical modelling of fluid flow (i.e. hydrodynamics) deliver a detailed flow map, with a fine spatial and temporal resolution. Regulatory agencies face a difficult task to match hydrodynamic measurements and swimming performance data. During

244-483: A change of channel morphology from pool-riffle to braided, and decreased the slope of the lowermost river. Widespread bed aggradation forced flow through floodplain channels, depositing additional sediment in the side channels of the Elwha river floodplain. Mainstream aggradation also formed numerous bars, further establishing braided morphology. The river system showed a greater geomorphic response to dam removal than it had to

305-412: A dam, "originally cut for the passage of fish up and down the river", is mentioned in the 1823 U.S. Circuit Court Case Tyler v. Wilkinson. This example predates the 1880 fish ladder at Pawtuxet Falls. The 1714 channel "wholly failed for this purpose" and, in 1730, a mill was built in its place. The channel and its mill usage became an important legal case in U.S. water law. A pool and weir salmon ladder

366-634: A fish hatchery that began operation in 1915. The hatchery was a fiasco. Its managers were unable to successfully rear fish. It was closed in 1922. With the Glines Canyon Dam blocking sediment from reaching the Strait of Juan de Fuca for more than 80 years, most of it had been accumulating in Lake Mills. Prior to dam construction, the sediment from the Elwha River accumulated at the mouth of the river, expanding

427-400: A recovery of salmon runs to some sort of "pre-dam" condition. In addition to restoring the fish habitats, the draining of Lake Mills and Lake Aldwell would create an additional 715 acres (2.9 km ) of terrestrial vegetation, improving elk habitats (Figure 1). Increased sediment loads were also predicted to help restore the retreating delta at the mouth of the Elwha. Removal of the dams on

488-404: A returning Chinook salmon population before they had a chance to spawn. The lakes also acted as buffers for high and low flow conditions. While the dams were not actively used for flood control , the reservoirs behind them altered the natural flow patterns of the river. The normal seasonal high and low flow were evened out by the reservoirs and dams so that flow was relatively constant throughout

549-824: The Olympic Peninsula and the community of Port Angeles , Washington. However, by the early 21st century, the combined power output of both dams only provided the equivalent of 38% of the electricity needed to operate one sawmill, the Daishowa America mill. Lacking passage for migrating salmon , its construction blocked access by anadromous salmonids to the upper 38 miles (48 km) of mainstream habitat and more than 30 miles (48 km) of tributary habitat. The salmon runs that once numbered more than 400,000 adult returns in over 70 miles (110 km) of available habitat, now numbered less than 4,000 adult returns on only 4.9 miles (7.9 km) of available habitat. After

610-406: The Olympic Peninsula . It was particularly known for its very large Chinook salmon, weighing as much as 45 kilograms (99 lb). Prior to the construction of the two dams on the river in the early 20th century, an estimated 392,000 fish returned annually to spawn. By the late 20th century, the number had declined to less than 3,000. Pink salmon were historically the most numerous salmon species in

671-551: The 10th-year anniversary of dam removal with the 2022 Elwha River “ScienceScape” symposium to review the first decade of partnership and restoration, and plan ahead for the next decade of monitoring. The Elwha River and the Elwha Ecosystem Restoration Project were the basis for the 2018 documentary, The Memory of Fish . It is the story of Dick Goin's 30-year fight for the removal of the Elwha River Dam for

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732-447: The 210 ft (64 m) Glines Canyon Dam from the Elwha River on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state. Elwha Dam was built privately from 1910 to 1912 by Thomas Aldwell , who owned land in the area. This resulted in blocking passage of migrating fish, limiting them to the lower 4.9 miles (7.9 km) of river below the dam. In 1927 Glines Canyon Dam was built 7 miles (11 km) upriver of Elwha Dam. Olympic National Park

793-869: The Ballisodare Fish Pass was built in County Sligo in Ireland to draw salmon into a river that had not supported a fishery. In 1880, the first fish ladder was built in Rhode Island , United States, on the Pawtuxet Falls Dam. The ladder was removed in 1924, when the City of Providence replaced the wood dam with a concrete one. USA legislated fishways in 1888. As the Industrial Age advanced, dams and other river obstructions became larger and more common, leading to

854-520: The Elwha Dam and Glines Canyon Dam hydroelectric power projects for decommissioning and demolition for habitat restoration. Removal of the Elwha Dam began in September 2011 and was fully complete by March 2012, allowing the Elwha River to flow freely through the site. The dam was built under the direction of Thomas Aldwell . He previously bought up tracts of land around the river, and with the help of Canadian financier George Glines , began construction of

915-411: The Elwha Dam in 1910. Aldwell and his contractors cut corners on constructing the dam, including illegally not building fish passages and not securing it to the bedrock. Thus, in 1912, as the reservoir filled behind the nearly completed dam, the lower sections of the dam gave way and a torrent of water headed downstream, taking out a bridge. Aldwell was able to get funding for reconstructing the dam and it

976-426: The Elwha River was a long process. Physical removal started on September 27, 2011, and was completed August 26, 2014. There is uncertainty about how the river will transform itself and what period of time will be involved. Because so few dam removal projects have been accompanied by scientific study, perhaps fewer than 20, this project will be a model of the effectiveness of dam removal on this scale. If restoration of

1037-407: The Elwha. Leaving one or both of the dams in place, even with modern fish passage systems, would not result in a dramatic recovery of species due to other factors like water temperature and gravel beds, which would still have negative effects on the fish species (see Table 1). The most valuable spawning habitats are located far upstream from the Glines Canyon Dam, so it still acted as a major barrier to

1098-556: The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe, in addition to local and state governments and outside public interest groups. As the largest project ever of its kind, it presents huge research opportunities. These are being pursued by students and professors at Peninsula College , Eastern Washington University , and Western Washington University , as well as professors from many other universities. The National Park Service and Olympic Park Institute are involved in education projects to inform

1159-419: The associated terrestrial habitats and species," and with Olympic National Park objectives to "conserve, maintain, and restore, where possible, the primary natural resources of the park and those ecological relationships and processes that would prevail were it not for the advent of modern civilization." The national park, tasked with preserving natural ecosystems, had a man-made system within its boundaries that

1220-405: The baffles decrease the flow velocity and increase the water depth to facilitate fish passage. At larger discharges, baffles induce lower local velocities and generate recirculation regions. However, baffles can reduce drastically the culvert discharge capacity for a given afflux, thus increasing substantially the total cost of the culvert structure to achieve the same design discharge and afflux. It

1281-586: The barriers by swimming and leaping up a series of relatively low steps (hence the term ladder ) into the waters on the other side. The velocity of water falling over the steps has to be great enough to attract the fish to the ladder, but it cannot be so great that it washes fish back downstream or exhausts them to the point of inability to continue their journey upriver. Written reports of rough fishways date to 17th-century France, where bundles of branches were used to make steps in steep channels to bypass obstructions. A 1714 construction of an old channel bypassing

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1342-402: The construction of the dams, the lower reach of the river saw a drastic decrease in sediment delivery. This led to a net erosion of the riverbed, including the gravels needed to create suitable habitats for spawning. Replacement gravel was trapped in the sediment load behind the dams. These gravels are considered an essential resource for restoration of salmon habitats. The delta at the mouth of

1403-428: The dam removal is restoring the river to a nearly pristine state. Fish ladder A fish ladder , also known as a fishway , fish pass , fish steps , or fish cannon , is a structure on or around artificial and natural barriers (such as dams , locks and waterfalls ) to facilitate diadromous fishes' natural migration as well as movements of potamodromous species. Most fishways enable fish to pass around

1464-489: The dam. Elwha Dam became operational in 1913. Because of this and other reasons, this dam did not receive a federal license to operate. An 1890 Washington State law required fish passage devices to be built on dams "wherever food fish are wont to ascend". Thomas Aldwell ignored this requirement. Fish Commissioner Leslie Darwin offered to waive that requirement if Aldwell built a fish hatchery adjoining Elwha Dam. Although Aldwell initially balked at this proposal, he did build

1525-667: The dams to restore salmon runs to the Elwha River. The Tribe opposed both applications by Crown Zellerbach, intervening before the FERC. The environmental community also got involved in opposing the dams. By the 1980s twelve conservation groups opposed the relicensing process, including Olympic Park Associates, Seattle Audubon Society, Sierra Club, Friends of the Earth, and American Rivers. A series of political battles occurred locally and in Washington, D.C. , particularly with Senator Slade Gorton blocking

1586-516: The dams to the federal government. In February 2000, the government bought the dams and related facilities for $ 29.5 million. Until removal, the dams had been operated by the Bureau of Reclamation , with National Park Service oversight. When the federal government purchased the dams in 2000, it freed the James River Corporation from any further liability related to the damage caused by the dams in

1647-557: The dams were built. The dammed river contributed a negligible volume of sediment to Ediz Hook. The combined power output the dams generated was approximately 19 mega-watt hours annually, a figure roughly equivalent to 38% of the electricity necessary to operate the Nippon Paper mill in Port Angeles . Other power sources in the regional grid supplied a much greater proportion of the area's electricity. The dams blocked and nearly eliminated

1708-411: The delta and forming extensive sandy beaches. East-flowing currents would transport much of that sediment toward the bluffs of Port Angeles and onto Ediz Hook . However, since the sediment had been accumulating in Lake Mills, wave action and currents had eroded the beaches until they became little more than rocky or pebbly slopes. The mouth of the river had eroded by several acres over the years, shrinking

1769-559: The distribution of seeds downstream, allowing for the dispersal of seeds that were previously blocked off. This has restored hydrochory on the river and the return of riparian vegetation downstream. Actively restored sites and recolonized sites have not developed significant populations of invasive species. The response of the Elwha River system to the dam removals provides a unique and important case study for future river restoration projects. The restoration of anadromous and migratory fish populations connectivity and habitat are primary goals of

1830-416: The lake level was held steady, the channel migrated laterally along the existing delta. This test resulted in a sediment erosion model in which gradual drawdown of the lake would result in a greatly decreased sediment load downstream. Using this model, the plan was to drain the lake gradually over a two-year time period, allowing much of the sediment to remain in the old lake basin. The model showed that after

1891-433: The last three decades, the ecological impact of culverts on natural streams and rivers has been recognised. While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations, this results often in large velocities in the barrel, which may prevent fish from passing through. Baffles may be installed along the barrel invert to provide some fish-friendly alternative. For low discharges,

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1952-480: The mouth of the river. The salmon runs provided a valuable food source for many animals, such as black bear , coyotes , gray wolves , bald eagles , raccoons , and dozens of others. In addition, salmon carcasses littered stream banks during prime fall and spring spawning, providing food for scavengers and decaying and enriching the soil. In the Elwha River basin, salmon once contributed over 300 tons of phosphorus and nitrogen every year, via decaying carcasses and

2013-536: The need for effective fish by-passes. Fish ladders have a mixed record of effectiveness. This varies for different types of species, with one study showing that only three percent of American Shad make it through all the fish ladders on the way to their spawning ground. Effectiveness depends on the fish species' swimming ability, and how the fish moves up and downstream. A fish passage that is designed to allow fish to pass upstream may not allow passage downstream, for instance. Fish passages do not always work. In practice

2074-419: The once enormous runs of salmon in the river and their nutrients into Olympic National Park. The sediment was no longer making it to the sea, resulting in erosion problems on the shore. Although the Elwha Dam was nearly a century old, it had never been secured to the bedrock, resulting in a potential danger of dam failure and a resultant flooding of downstream communities. The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe had sought

2135-682: The past or potentially in the future. After the 1992 Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act was passed, a number of alternatives for restoration were explored by the Department of the Interior. The Final Programmatic EIS ( environmental impact statement ), released in June 1995, concluded that the only way to fully restore the river was to remove both dams. The Final Implementation EIS, released in November 1996, concluded that sediment that had accumulated in

2196-406: The peninsula whose basins have been harmed by extensive land use, especially logging . Above the dams, the Elwha's basin remains largely in a natural condition. Limited development has occurred downriver from the park boundary. Water is withdrawn for municipal and industrial use and there is some logging. The primary goal of this project was the removal of the 108 ft (33 m) Elwha Dam and

2257-399: The process. By 2000 Gorton retreated, allowing the dams to be purchased by the federal government in order to arrange for removal. In 1987 the dams and all other assets of Crown Zellerbach were acquired by the James River Corporation, which owned the dams until 2000. Concerned that it might someday be required to remove the dams and pay for river restoration, the corporation sought to transfer

2318-535: The project, while Senator Brock Adams strongly supported the removal plan. Final congressional approval of the dam removal project was expressed in the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992, which authorized the Secretary of the Interior to acquire and remove two dams on the river and restore the ecosystem and native anadromous fisheries. However, Senator Gorton continued to block and delay

2379-469: The public about the history of the river, the dam removal process, ecosystem restoration, and the return of salmon to the upper river. The restoration partnership has supported Indigenous survival and collective continuance; however, many desired goals of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe have not been achieved. The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe is concerned with the dispossession of lands and river access. Tribal, Federal, State, research, and community groups hosted

2440-464: The recovery of the runs. Removal of both dams was thus considered the only viable option for full restoration of the river and habitat. The Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992 created funding and government support for mitigation of the dams on the Elwha. While fish ladders were proposed as a possibility, they were ultimately ruled out for the reasons given in the previous section. The major problem raised with regard to removal of

2501-522: The removal of the two dams since they were built. In 1968 the owner of the dams, Crown Zellerbach Corporation, applied to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) for a license for Elwha Dam, and in 1973 applied to renew the license for Glines Canyon Dam. By this time, the treaty fishing rights of the Pacific Northwest tribes had been recognized in the 1979 Boldt Decision , and the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe pressed for removal of

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2562-468: The reservoir has revealed a ceremonial creation ground of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe; it had been submerged since the early 20th century. This has been profoundly welcomed by the tribe, which has planned events to restore the sacred space. After the removal of the dams, 10.5 million metric tons of sediment was released from two reservoirs through the Elwha river system. The sudden increase of sediment supply caused bed aggradation of ~1 meter, resulting in

2623-402: The restoration project. Anadromous and migratory fishes previously lost 90% of their habitat due to the dams. After dam removal, eight anadromous species swiftly ascended upstream into areas previously impeded, restoring connectivity, permitting the return of fish upstream and increasing their spatial distribution and density. Coho Salmon after a century long absence is reproducing and rearing in

2684-534: The return of salmon to the Elwha River. Elwha Dam The Elwha Dam was a 108-ft (33 m) high dam located in the United States, in the state of Washington , on the Elwha River approximately 4.9 miles (7.9 km) upstream from the mouth of the river on the Strait of Juan de Fuca . The Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992 authorized the US Federal Government to acquire

2745-433: The river before the dams were built: spring- and summer/fall-run Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ), chum salmon ( O. keta ), coho salmon ( O. kisutch ), pink salmon ( O. gorbuscha ), sockeye salmon ( O. nerka ), summer- and winter-run steelhead trout ( O. mykiss ), bull trout ( Salvelinus confluentus ), and cutthroat trout ( O. clarki clarki ). The river was considered the most prolific fish producer on

2806-414: The river is successful, it could encourage a movement towards the restoration of natural stream morphology through the removal of larger dams. Most fish populations are expected to make a return to the river (Table 1). While fish may return to the river as soon as a year after the removal is complete, it may take 15 to 20 years for the river to fully return to its pre-dam conditions. The ultimate goal of

2867-663: The river, where it enters the Strait of Juan de Fuca , also saw a net erosion effect, confirmed by local tribal leaders. Another effect of damming was the creation of Lake Aldwell and Lake Mills. These lakes had a multitude of impacts on the river beyond sediment retention. Because the water stayed in the lake for so long, it warmed up to approximately 16 °C. Normal water temperatures are around 0 °C. These higher temperatures are unnatural for spawning fish, which prefer colder ocean temperature waters. This increase in temperature also increased parasite populations, which threatened salmon runs. In 1992, disease wiped out two thirds of

2928-464: The river, with over 250,000 adult returns. By the 1980s that number fell to near zero. Coho occupied the largest area of the watershed, going up many of the tributaries, and nearly to the headwaters of the Elwha River. Salmon were long an extremely important food source for the Lower Elwha Klallam people. They have occupied territory in this area for thousands of years, and still live on land at

2989-562: The scat of predators and scavengers. In this way salmon played an important role in the overall health of the ecosystem. About 130 species benefit from the nutrients in salmon carcasses. Today, about 83% of the Elwha River's watershed lies within Olympic National Park , where it is protected, more than that of any other river on the Olympic Peninsula. Most of the Elwha's basin is in pristine condition, unlike many other rivers on

3050-567: The section that was occupied by the Elwha and Glines Canyon Dams. Recolonization efforts through relocation of adults to the Little River and Indian Creek tributaries from hatcheries has established levels of spawning and juvenile production comparable to other Coho Salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest. The partnership includes the National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, and

3111-532: The size of the Lower Elwha Klallam reservation and eliminating their once abundant clam beds. Ediz Hook has eroded to the point that rip-rap has to be placed on the feature to protect Port Angeles harbor from the effects of the wave action. The United States Army Corps of Engineers spends approximately $ 100,000 annually to control erosion of Ediz Hook and estimates the Elwha River contributed between 50,000 and 80,000 cubic yards of sediment per year before

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3172-399: The two dams was the approximately 34 million cubic yards of sediment that had built up behind the dams. Of that 34 million, 28 million was behind the Glines Canyon Dam, while 6 million was behind the Elwha Dam. Releasing all of this sediment at once would have had devastating effects on the remaining habitats downstream from the dams, as well as along beaches at the coast. A drawdown experiment

3233-399: The two reservoirs should be allowed to erode and disperse naturally downstream. Removal of the Elwha Dam began in September 2011 and was finished in spring 2012, ahead of schedule. Removal of the second dam, the Glines Canyon Dam , was completed on August 26, 2014. The dam removal process was originally projected to last two and a half to three years. The estimated cost of removing both dams

3294-432: The two year dam removal period, the river would begin to restore itself to natural conditions. Sediment discharge rates would increase, resulting in restored and rejuvenated habitats downstream from the dams. Fish were anticipated to return to the upper reaches of the Elwha as soon as a year after dam removal was complete. While the river might never return to historically large runs, after 15–20 years or more, there should be

3355-421: The year. Natural flow patterns are known to promote the health of native species and to help eliminate non native species after dam removal . At its peak, the Elwha supported spawning runs of Chinook, coho , chum , pink , and sockeye salmon as well as steelhead , cutthroat , and bull trout . The Chinook were known to reach sizes of 45 kg. Sockeye, Chinook, chum, and pink salmon were all endangered in

3416-408: Was $ 40 to $ 60 million. The total cost of the Elwha River restoration is approximately $ 351.4 million. This price includes the purchase of the two dams and related facilities, construction of two water treatment plants and other facilities to protect water users, and construction of flood protection facilities, a fish hatchery, and a greenhouse for growing native plants for revegetation. The draining of

3477-524: Was built around 1830 by James Smith, a Scottish engineer on the River Teith, near Deanston, Perthshire in Scotland. Both the weir and salmon ladder are there today and many subsequent salmon ladders built in Scotland were inspired by it. A version was patented in 1837 by Richard McFarlan of Bathurst, New Brunswick , Canada, who designed a fishway to bypass a dam at his water-powered lumber mill. In 1852–1854,

3538-520: Was completed in 1913. The reservoir that filled the valley behind was known as Lake Aldwell . The Elwha River Hydroelectric Power Plant historic district , a 3.5 acres (1.4 ha) area comprising the dam, the powerhouse, five penstocks and the surge tank , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. Initially, along with the Glines Canyon Dam , which was completed in 1926, it helped to fuel economic growth and development for

3599-416: Was conducted on the Glines Canyon Dam to assess the erosion of the sediments from Lake Mills. The lake was drawn down 18 feet (5.5 m) over one week and then allowed to remain stable for one more week. This test showed that the river would rapidly cut into the existing delta as soon as the lake level dropped, creating a deep, narrow channel. A new delta immediately began to form at the new lake level. Once

3660-476: Was established by the federal government in 1938 during the Great Depression . In 1940, the park's boundaries were expanded to include Glines Canyon Dam and its reservoir of Lake Mills . The presence and operation of the dam was inconsistent with National Park Service policies to "restore natural aquatic habitats and the natural abundance and distribution of native aquatic species, including fish, together with

3721-429: Was known to disrupt major portions of the ecology. When Elwha Dam was built, it was secured to the walls of the bedrock canyon, but not to the bedrock underlying the river substrate. In 1912, shortly after the reservoir (Lake Aldwell) filled, pressure at the base of the dam built up so much that the foundation of the dam blew out. The void under the dam was plugged by adding fill material to the river below and upstream of

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