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54-577: Ellington Colliery (also known as The Big E ), was a coal mine situated to the south of the village of Ellington in Northumberland , England. The colliery was the last deep coal mine in the north east of England (also known as the Great Northern Coalfield). At one time, the deepest part of the mine was 800 metres (2,600 ft) and it extended 15 miles (24 km) under the North Sea . During

108-568: A finer sand than the original. Thermoluminescence monitoring reveals that storms can erode such beaches far more quickly. This was observed at a Waikiki nourishment project in Hawaii . Beach Profile Nourishment describes programs that nourish the full beach profile. In this instance, "profile" means the slope of the uneroded beach from above the water out to sea. The Gold Coast profile nourishment program placed 75% of its total sand volume below low water level. Some coastal authorities overnourish

162-401: A beach is wet during falling tide, because the sea sinks faster than the beach drains. As a result, most erosion happens during falling tide. Beach drainage (beach dewatering) using Pressure Equalizing Modules (PEMs) allow the beach to drain more effectively during falling tide. Fewer hours of wet beach translate to less erosion. Permeable PEM tubes inserted vertically into the foreshore connect

216-431: A beach nourishment project is most predictable for a long, straight shoreline without the complications of inlets or engineered structures. In addition, predictability is better for overall performance, e.g., average shoreline change, rather than shoreline change at a specific location. Nourishment can affect eligibility in the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program and federal disaster assistance. Nourishment may have

270-597: A cost of $ 70 million. The project designers and the government committed to invest in beach maintenance to address future erosion. Project designers considered factors such as the time of year and sand characteristics such as density. Restoration in Cancun was expected to deliver 1.3 billion US gallons (4,900,000 m ) of sand to replenish 450 meters (1,480 ft) of coastline. Gold Coast beaches in Queensland , Australia have experienced periods of severe erosion. In 1967

324-547: A long straight beach, an inlet that may be either natural or modified and a pocket beach . Rocky or seawalled shorelines, that otherwise have no sediment, present unique problems. Hurricane Wilma hit the beaches of Cancun and the Riviera Maya in 2005. The initial nourishment project was unsuccessful at a cost of $ 19 million, leading to a second round that began in September 2009 and was scheduled to complete in early 2010 with

378-416: A role in longshore transport inhibition and downdrift erosion. These activities interfere with the natural sediment flows either through dam construction (thereby reducing riverine sediment sources) or construction of littoral barriers such as jetties , or by deepening of inlets; thus preventing longshore transport of sediment. The coastal engineering for the shoreline protection involves: Nourishment

432-559: A second berm around a meter in height can accelerate the recovery. This approach was employed at Washaway Beach in North Cove, Washington . Once the berms were in place, in one year the beach expanded by some 15 meters, and continued to grow. Projects in Washington, California, Europe, and Guam have adopted aspects of the techniques. The setting of a beach nourishment project is key to design and potential performance. Possible settings include

486-477: A series of 11 cyclones removed most of the sand from Gold Coast beaches. The Government of Queensland engaged engineers from Delft University in the Netherlands to advise them. The 1971 Delft Report outlined a series of works for Gold Coast Beaches, including beach nourishment and an artificial reef. By 2005 most of the recommendations had been implemented. The Northern Gold Coast Beach Protection Strategy (NGCBPS)

540-549: A very detailed study, that all erosion along the full Dutch coastline would be compensated by artificial beach nourishment. The shoreline is closely monitored by yearly recording of the cross section at points 250 meters (820 ft) apart, to ensure adequate protection. Where long-term erosion is identified, beach nourishment using high-capacity suction dredgers is deployed. In 1990 the Dutch government has decided to compensate in principle all coastal erosion by nourishment. This policy

594-464: Is a small village in the civil parish of Ellington and Linton , on the coast of Northumberland , England. Ellington is 4 miles (6 km) from Ashington , 6 miles (10 km) from Morpeth and 20 miles (32 km) north of Newcastle upon Tyne . Ellington was the site of the last remaining operational deep coal mine in North East England . Ellington Colliery closed on 26 January 2005. It

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648-400: Is a type of bioerosion which alters coastal geography through beach morphodynamics . There are numerous incidences of the modern recession of beaches , mainly due to a gradient in longshore drift and coastal development hazards . Beaches can erode naturally or due to human impact ( beach theft / sand mining ). Erosion is a natural response to storm activity. During storms, sand from

702-415: Is however unsatisfactory. First, nothing proves that these expenditures are incremental (they could shift expenditures from other nearby areas). Second, economic impact does not account for costs and benefits for all economic agents, as cost benefit analysis does. Techniques for incorporating nourishment projects into flood insurance costs and disaster assistance remain controversial. The performance of

756-514: Is in line with the current knowledge of swash-groundwater sediment dynamics which states that the effects of in/exfiltration flows through sand beds in the swash zone associated to modification of swash boundary layer and relative weight of the sediment and overall volume loss of the swash tongue are generally lower than other drivers, at least for fine sediments such as sand Appropriately constructed and sited fences can capture blowing sand, building/restoring sand dunes, and progressively protecting

810-470: Is now the village library. To serve the ever-growing population a new school was built in 1976; it soon proved to be too small and remodelling and extension work took place in 1986. At that time the nursery accommodation was added, which facilitated the later provision of the Early Years Unit. The school crest was designed by a pupil and features a drawing of the colliery, the beach, Alcan smelter and

864-438: Is typically a repetitive process, as nourishment mitigates the effects of erosion, but does not remove the causes. A benign environment increases the interval between nourishment projects, reducing costs. Conversely, high erosion rates may render nourishment financially impractical. In many coastal areas, the economic impacts of a wide beach can be substantial. Since 1923, the U.S. has spent $ 9 billion to rebuild beaches. One of

918-590: The 1980s, the pit (along with Lynemouth Colliery) was known as the biggest undersea mine in the world and produced 69% of the mined coal in Northumberland. Ellington had several faces for mining and was known for winning coal from under the North Sea, before flooding caused the early closure of the mine. The pit was first sunk into the Great Northern Coalfield in 1909, but wasn't completed until 1913. Coal

972-494: The USA (418 projects). The total volume of all these nourishments was 648 million cubic yards (495 m ) with a total cost of US$ 3387 million (adjusted to price level 1996). This is US$ 6.84 per m . Between 2000 and 2020 the price per m has gone up considerably in the USA (see table below), while in Europe the price has gone down. Around the North Sea prices are much lower. In 2000 an inventory

1026-486: The application of accepted coastal engineering principles. Beach nourishment has significant impacts on local ecosystems. Nourishment may cause direct mortality to sessile organisms in the target area by burying them under the new sand. The seafloor habitat in both source and target areas are disrupted, e.g. when sand is deposited on coral reefs or when deposited sand hardens. Imported sand may differ in character (chemical makeup, grain size, non-native species) from that of

1080-443: The beach and dunes . Since then more shoreface nourishments have been carried out, which rely on the forces of the wind , waves and tides to further distribute the sand along the shore and onto the beaches and dunes. The number and size of nourishment projects has increased significantly due to population growth and projected relative sea-level rise . Beach erosion is a specific subset of coastal erosion , which in turn

1134-417: The beach from the wind, and the shore from blowing sand. Another approach is to create dynamic revetment , a berm using unmortared, unsorted rocks ( cobbles ). Seeds scattered among the cobbles can germinate to anchor the cobbles in place. Sand can collect and recreate a sandy beach. Leaving the rocks loose allows them to migrate and settle in a stable location. Separately, near the highest average waterline,

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1188-666: The beach. The tubes are below the beach surface, with no visible presence. PEM installations have been installed on beaches in Denmark, Sweden, Malaysia and Florida. The effectiveness of beach dewatering has not been proven convincingly on life-sized beaches, in particular for the sand beach case. Dewatering systems have been shown to lower very significantly the watertable but other morphodynamical effects generally overpower any stabilizing effect of dewatering for fine sediments, although some mixed results on upper beach accretion associated to erosion in middle and lower have been reported. This

1242-768: The below water beach (aka "nearshore nourishment") so that over time the natural beach increases in size. These approaches do not permanently protect beaches eroded by human activity, which requires that activity to be mitigated. Nourishment projects usually involve physical, environmental and economic objectives. Typical physical measures include dry beach width/height, post-storm sand volume, post-storm damage avoidance assessments and aqueous sand volume. Environmental measures include marine life distribution, habitat and population counts. Economic impacts include recreation, tourism, flood and "disaster" prevention. Many nourishment projects are advocated via economic impact studies that rely on additional tourist expenditure. This approach

1296-555: The building of three rows of colliery houses and more shops and businesses. In 1912 a co-operative store was built on land that had once been part of the Cresswell estate, bringing more prosperity to the village. This was eventually superseded by a larger store built in the neighbouring village of Lynemouth . The colliery was used as the fictional 'Everington' mine in the Stephen Daldry film Billy Elliot . Hagg Farm, which lies to

1350-469: The coal being produced was too low quality, and slated closure of the site for February 2000. The mine was used as a backdrop for the fictional colliery in the film Billy Elliot in 2000. Ellington was used, because it was one of a very small number of operational mines remaining in the north east of England. The mine was once again threatened with closure in 2002 after running up losses of £26 million in 2001. But an injection of £1 million in cash

1404-426: The coast near to Lynemouth from Ellington Combine and other local pits. Aside from the environmental damage, the tipped spoil acted as a replenishment for the nearby beaches, and with Ellington closing in 2005, this tipping had ceased. The beaches are now suffering from faster erosion rates than were previously recorded, as there is now no beach replenishment . Between 1974 and its closure in 2005, an average of 66% of

1458-461: The concern that dredge pipes would suck turtles into the pumps by adding a special grill to the dredge pipes. The selection of suitable material for a particular project depends upon the design needs, environmental factors and transport costs, considering both short and long-term implications. The most important material characteristic is the sediment grain size, which must closely match the native material. Excess silt and clay fraction (mud) versus

1512-592: The different layers of groundwater . The groundwater enters the PEM tube allowing gravity to conduct it to a coarser sand layer, where it can drain more quickly. The PEM modules are placed in a row from the dune to the mean low waterline. Distance between rows is typically 300 feet (91 m) but this is project-specific. PEM systems come in different sizes. Modules connect layers with varying hydraulic conductivity . Air/water can enter and equalize pressure. PEMs are minimally invasive, typically covering approximately 0.00005% of

1566-550: The early years of the 19th century, the greater part of the village was owned by the Baker-Cresswells. This situation remained until the sale of their estate in 1924 (the family, now based at nearby Bamburgh, is still - 2006 -influential in the area). Ellington is well known as being a colliery village but was a thriving community long before the opening of the Colliery, having a school, two public houses and several businesses by

1620-467: The estuaries and behind the barrier islands there are no dunes). This coastline is eroding for centuries; in the 19th and beginning of 20th centuries it was tried to stop erosion by construction of groynes , which was costly and not very successful. Beach nourishment was more successful, but there were questions on the method of funding. In the Coastal Memorandum of 1990 the government decided, after

1674-599: The ground. The NUM later said it would not apologise for the incident. British Coal closed the mine on 18 February 1994, with the loss of 1,100 jobs. The last pit ponies used in a commercial venture in England were also retired at the same time. The mine was acquired by RJB Mining for £800 million, and they reopened it for production in March 1995. In November 1999, the site was threatened with closure by RJB Mining due to "deteriorating geological conditions". The company said that

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1728-402: The last large industrial producers to do so. Throughout the 1980s, Ellington remained the most profitable colliery in the Northumberland coalfield, and during 1985/86, it was only colliery in that area to turn a profit. It was also the worlds' largest undersea project, and regularly accounted for over 69% of all deep-mined coal in the county of Northumberland. In February 1984, a few weeks before

1782-495: The mid-19th century. The Colliery, which was originally owned by the Ashington Coal Company, began production in 1911. By the time the collieries were nationalised in 1947 there were 1,381 men employed. By 1986 the number had grown to around 2,170 men producing approximately 45,000 tonnes of coal per week. Pit ponies were used in the colliery until 1994. The Colliery changed the face of the one time rural village, with

1836-554: The mine were later given £6,000 each after an employment tribunal ruled that UK Coal hadn't given the statutory 90-day consultation notice of closure. UK Coal stated that the immediate closure due to flooding prevented them giving prior notification. By February 2006, two of the shafts had been capped and the 90-foot (27 m) winding tower had been demolished. Since closure, the site has been redeveloped for housing. A report released in 2020, estimated that over 30 million tonnes (33,000,000 tons) of colliery waste had been tipped at

1890-452: The mine's output went to the nearby Lynemouth Power Station. Between 1947 and 1992, the mine was in public ownership with the switch in 1986 being a name change. Likewise, the period of 1992 to 2005, the mine was in private ownership with the switch in 2001 being a name change after Richard Budge retired. Whilst the mine was acquired by RJB Mining in 1994, it didn't resume production until 1995. Ellington, Northumberland Ellington

1944-426: The most notable example is the 10 miles (16 km)–long shoreline fronting Miami Beach , Florida, which was replenished over the period 1976–1981. The project cost approximately US$ 86 million and revitalized the area's economy. Prior to nourishment, in many places the beach was too narrow to walk along, especially during high tide . In 1998 an overview was made of all known beach nourishment projects in

1998-491: The natural turbidity in the nourishment area disqualifies some materials. Projects with unmatched grain sizes performed relatively poorly. Nourishment sand that is only slightly smaller than native sand can result in significantly narrower equilibrated dry beach widths compared to sand the same size as (or larger than) native sand. Evaluating material fit requires a sand survey that usually includes geophysical profiles and surface and core samples. Some beaches were nourished using

2052-527: The north of the village, was bought in 1924 for £8,500 by the Wood family who had been the tenants for over 300 years. The farm consisted of a house, four cottages and 360 acres (1.5 km ) of land. On 16 June 1992 the parish was renamed from "Ellington" to "Ellington and Linton". There has been a school in Ellington since 1837; it now offers education for children aged 3 to 11. The original school building of 1837

2106-456: The school. Beach replenishment The first nourishment project in the United States was at Coney Island , New York in 1922 and 1923. It is now a common shore protection measure used by public and private entities. The first nourishment project in the U.S. was constructed at Coney Island , New York in 1922–1923. Before the 1970s, nourishment involved directly placing sand on

2160-444: The shore (seawalls or revetments) prevent erosion . While this protects structures, it doesn't protect the beach that is outside the wall. The beach generally disappears over a period that ranges from months to decades. Groynes and breakwaters that run perpendicular to the shore protect it from erosion. Filling a breakwater with imported sand can stop the breakwater from trapping sand from the littoral stream (the ocean running along

2214-626: The shore.) Otherwise the breakwater may deprive downstream beaches of sand and accelerate erosion there. Armoring may restrict beach/ocean access, enhance erosion of adjacent shorelines, and requires long-term maintenance. Managed retreat moves structures and other infrastructure inland as the shoreline erodes. Retreat is more often chosen in areas of rapid erosion and in the presence of little or obsolete development. Beaches grow and shrink depending on tides, precipitation, wind, waves and current. Wet beaches tend to lose sand. Waves infiltrate dry beaches easily and deposit sandy sediment. Generally

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2268-492: The start of the 1984–1985 miners' strike , the National Coal Board chairman, Ian MacGregor visited the colliery but was "besieged" by 400 miners protesting about the planned closure of Bates Colliery at Blyth. This led to MacGregors planned underground tour being cancelled and as he was being given a secure police escort off the site, the protesters surged forward and a low fence collapsed with MacGregor being "jostled" to

2322-613: The target environment. Light availability may be reduced, affecting nearby reefs and submerged aquatic vegetation . Imported sand may contain material toxic to local species. Removing material from near-shore environments may destabilize the shoreline, in part by steepening its submerged slope. Related attempts to reduce future erosion may provide a false sense of security that increases development pressure. Newly deposited sand can harden and complicate nest-digging for turtles. However, nourishment can provide more/better habitat for them, as well as for sea birds and beach flora. Florida addressed

2376-737: The unintended consequence of promoting coastal development , which increases risk of other coastal hazards. Nourishment is not the only technique used to address eroding beaches. Others can be used singly or in combination with nourishment, driven by economic, environmental and political considerations. Human activities such as dam construction can interfere with natural sediment flows (thereby reducing riverine sediment sources.) Construction of littoral barriers such as jetties and deepening of inlets can prevent longshore sediment transport. The structural approach attempts to prevent erosion. Armoring involves building revetments , seawalls , detached breakwaters , groynes , etc. Structures that run parallel to

2430-741: The visible beach submerges to form sand bars that protect the beach. Submersion is only part of the cycle. During calm weather, smaller waves return sand from bars to the visible beach surface in a process called accretion . Some beaches do not have enough sand available for coastal processes to respond naturally to storms. When not enough sand is available, the beach cannot recover after storms. Many areas of high erosion are due to human activities. Reasons can include: seawalls locking up sand dunes , coastal structures like ports and harbors that prevent longshore transport , and dams and other river management structures. Continuous, long-term renourishment efforts, especially in cuspate-cape coastlines, can play

2484-404: The waves upon the coal waste separated out the coal which would float. This waste, coupled with coal from the seams under the sea being washed up on local beaches, created a local harvesting industry known as Seacoaling . In 1983, the pit set a record by outputting 1,000,000 tonnes (1,100,000 tons) in just 29 weeks. At the same time, it was estimated that Ellington employed 50 pit ponies , one of

2538-514: Was an A$ 10 million investment. NGCBPS was implemented between 1992 and 1999 and the works were completed between 1999 and 2003. The project included dredging 3,500,000 cubic metres (4,600,000 cu yd) of compatible sand from the Gold Coast Broadwater and delivering it through a pipeline to nourish 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) of beach between Surfers Paradise and Main Beach . The new sand

2592-399: Was built called Bewick Drift , with all coal from Ellington being brought to the surface there and then latterly moved on a conveyor to the aluminium smelter. Bewick Drift opened in 1968, and the railway connection to Ellington from the west became redundant. It closed in the late 1970s. During the 1970s, coal waste from Ellington and Lynemouth Colleries was tipped into the sea. The action of

2646-624: Was made by the North Sea Coastal Management Group. From the Netherlands more detailed data are available, see below in the section on Dutch case studies. The price for nourishments in areas without an available dredging fleet is often in the order of €20 - €30 per cubic meter. A wide beach is a good energy absorber, which is significant in low-lying areas where severe storms can impact upland structures. The effectiveness of wide beaches in reducing structural damage has been proven by field studies conducted after storms and through

2700-512: Was mined from the Ashington, High Main, Main, Yard, Low Main and Brass Thill seams. By 1974, over 66% of the mine's output was going to the adjacent aluminium smelter , with the remainder being sold to the CEGB . Ellington and Lynemouth Collieries were linked underground, and were known as Ellington Combine . When Lynemouth Colliery was deliberately flooded to try and extinguish a fire, a new drift entrance

2754-596: Was stabilized by an artificial reef constructed at Narrowneck out of huge geotextile sand bags. The new reef was designed to improve wave conditions for surfing. A key monitoring program for the NGCBPS is the ARGUS coastal camera system. More than one-quarter of the Netherlands is below sea level. The coastline along the North Sea (approx. 300 kilometers (190 mi)) is protected against flooding by natural sand dunes (only in

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2808-546: Was the last deep mine in the UK to extract coal from under the sea. The name of the village is thought to derive from the Saxon meaning descendants of Ella. Today, Ellington is made up almost exclusively of private housing. It has one school, village shops, and one public house, the Plough Inn. Throughout recorded history, the lands of Ellington have had many owners. The manor of Ellington

2862-482: Was thought to belong to Adam de Periton in 1240 and later to pass by marriage to the ancient families of Vescy and Welles. The Widdrington family were known to acquire possessions in Ellington as early as the 13th century. In 1715, Lord Widdrington relinquished the manor of Ellington, along with the manors of Woodhorn , Cresswell and Newbiggin . Other lands and interests in Ellington belonging to other landowners were sold in 1750 to Adam Askew of Newcastle upon Tyne. By

2916-431: Was used to search for new seams, which at the time, was said to have guaranteed the life of the mine until 2007. Final closure of the mine came on 26 January 2005. An inundation of water underground made operations unsafe, although the pumps were kept working in an effort to see what could be salvaged from underground, however, over £8 million worth of equipment was left in the floodwaters. The 300+ miners who worked at

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