Misplaced Pages

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71-511: Prior to the Elkins Act, the livestock and petroleum industries paid standard rail shipping rates, but then would demand that the railroad company give them rebates. The railroad companies resented being extorted by the railroad trusts and therefore welcomed passage of the Elkins Act. The law was sponsored by President Theodore Roosevelt as a part of his " Square Deal " domestic program, and greatly boosted his popularity. Congress passed

142-475: A Wall Street Journal article stated, "Last month State Farm pulled the plug on its 1.2 million homeowner policies in Florida , citing the state's punishing price controls.... State Farm's local subsidiary recently requested an increase of 47%, but state regulators refused. State Farm says that since 2000, it has paid $ 1.21 in claims and expenses for every $ 1 of premium income received." On January 10, 2006,

213-455: A focal point , which is natural for both parties to charge. One research paper documenting the phenomenon is Knittel and Stangel, which found that in the 1980s United States, states that fixed an interest rate ceiling of 18 percent had firms charging a rate only slightly below the ceiling. States without an interest rate ceiling had interest rates that were significantly lower. The authors did not find any difference in costs that could explain

284-491: A "sense of place, attachment to land, and the value of preserving open space were common themes". "The importance of land and animals as means of maintaining culture and way of life figured repeatedly in permittee responses, as did the subjects of responsibility and respect for land, animals, family, and community." In the US, profit tends to rank low among motivations for involvement in livestock ranching. Instead, family, tradition and

355-607: A BBC article reported that since 2003, Venezuela President Hugo Chávez had been setting price ceilings on food and that the price ceilings had caused shortages and hoarding . A January 22, 2008, article from Associated Press stated, "Venezuelan troops are cracking down on the smuggling of food... the National Guard has seized about 750 tons of food.... Hugo Chavez ordered the military to keep people from smuggling scarce items like milk.... He's also threatened to seize farms and milk plants...." On February 28, 2009, Chávez ordered

426-489: A bill in 1902 at the behest of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The law was passed by the 57th Congress and signed by President Roosevelt on February 19, 1903. The Act made it a misdemeanor for a carrier to impose preferential rebates, and implicated both the carrier and the recipient of the low price. The Act also abolished imprisonment as a punishment for breaching the law, so a violator could only be fined. By reducing

497-511: A buffer may sometimes be limited where alternatives are present, which may reflect strategic maintenance of insurance in addition to a desire to retain productive assets. Even for some farmers in Western nations, livestock can serve as a kind of insurance. Some crop growers may produce livestock as a strategy for diversification of their income sources, to reduce risks related to weather, markets and other factors. Many studies have found evidence of

568-468: A cartel is difficult because it is necessary to agree on quantities and prices, and because each firm will have an incentive to "cheat" by lowering prices to sell more than it agreed to. Antitrust laws make collusion even more difficult because of legal sanctions. Having a third party, such as a regulator, announce and enforce a maximum price level can make it easier for the firms to agree on a price and to monitor pricing . The regulatory price can be viewed as

639-448: A desired way of life tend to be major motivators for ranch purchase, and ranchers "historically have been willing to accept low returns from livestock production". Animal husbandry has a significant impact on the world environment. It is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 33% of the fresh water usage in the world, and livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of Earth's ice-free land. Livestock production

710-492: A hunting instinct, leaving the carcass uneaten. Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on farms, bringing economic benefits through maximised production. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines , by the farmer and the veterinarian . In the European Union, when farmers treat the animals, they are required to follow

781-439: A major economic and cultural role in numerous communities. Livestock farming practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming . Intensive animal farming increases the yield of the various commercial outputs, but also negatively impacts animal welfare , the environment , and public health . In particular, beef, dairy and sheep are an outsized source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture . The word livestock

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852-569: A paper by Sen et al. that found that gasoline prices were higher in states that instituted price ceilings. Another example is the Supreme Court of Pakistan decision regarding fixing a ceiling price for sugar at 45 Pakistani rupees per kilogram. Sugar disappeared from the market because of a cartel of sugar producers and the failure of the Pakistani government to maintain supply even in the stores that it owned. The imported sugar required time to reach

923-485: A program or activity. For example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 (P.L. 106–78, Title IX) defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep, while the 1988 disaster assistance legislation defined the term as "cattle, sheep, goats, swine, poultry (including egg-producing poultry), equine animals used for food or in the production of food, fish used for food, and other animals designated by

994-476: A substantial portion of a carrier's revenue that the trusts could demand rebates as a condition for business, and the carrier would be forced to cooperate. The ICC had been unable to protect competition and fair pricing. Section 2 of the Interstate Commerce Act prohibits a carrier from offering preferential prices or rebates; however, enforcement of this section was ineffective. Powerful trusts would pay

1065-472: A variety of food and non-food products; the latter include leather, wool, pharmaceuticals, bone products, industrial protein, and fats. For many abattoirs, very little animal biomass may be wasted at slaughter. Even intestinal contents removed at slaughter may be recovered for use as fertilizer. Livestock manure helps maintain the fertility of grazing lands. Manure is commonly collected from barns and feeding areas to fertilize cropland. In some places, animal manure

1136-546: A week. At the other extreme, in the more Western parts of the world, animals are often intensively managed ; dairy cows may be kept in zero-grazing conditions with all their forage brought to them; beef cattle may be kept in high density feedlots ; pigs may be housed in climate-controlled buildings and never go outdoors; poultry may be reared in barns and kept in cages as laying birds under lighting-controlled conditions. In between these two extremes are semi-intensive, often family-run farms where livestock graze outside for much of

1207-402: Is a contributing factor in species extinction , desertification , and habitat destruction . Meat is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction . Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in various ways. Habitat is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for animal grazing (for example, animal husbandry

1278-441: Is a substantial body of research showing that under some circumstances price ceilings can, paradoxically, lead to higher prices. The leading explanation is that price ceilings serve to coordinate collusion among suppliers who would otherwise compete on price. More precisely, firms forming a cartel becomes profitable by enabling nominally competing firms to act like a monopoly , limiting quantities and raising prices. However, forming

1349-535: Is done with the intention of increasing animal production, but in turn increases emissions. In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases . The IPCC has estimated that agriculture (including not only livestock, but also food crop, biofuel and other production) accounted for about 10 to 12 percent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (expressed as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2005 and in 2010. Cattle produce some 79 million tons of methane per day. Live westock enteric methane account 30% of

1420-436: Is estimated as close to $ 1 trillion . As an outright end to human consumption of meat and/or animal products is not currently considered a realistic goal, any comprehensive adaptation to effects of climate change must also consider livestock. The observed adverse impacts on livestock production include increased heat stress in all but the coldest nations. This causes both mass animal mortality during heatwaves , and

1491-459: Is far more likely. The result of the Elkins Act was that railroads had a stronger mechanism to protect their collusive prices and corporate trusts were weakened in their ability to gain shipping discounts. Farmers and other railroad users, instead of benefiting from greater competition, were unaffected by the Act. While farmers may have benefited from the establishment of a price ceiling on freight rates,

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1562-595: Is responsible for up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region ), while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted and hunted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits. The newest report released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that between the 1970s and 2000s agricultural emission increases were directly linked to an increase in livestock. The population growth of livestock (including cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats)

1633-587: Is still used in some parts of the world. Truck transport is now common in developed countries. Local and regional livestock auctions and specialized agricultural markets facilitate trade in livestock. In Canada at the Cargill slaughterhouse in High River, Alberta , 2,000 workers process 4,500 cattle per day, or more than one-third of Canada's capacity. It closed when some of its workers became infected with coronavirus disease 2019 . The Cargill plant together with

1704-413: Is the term used for much-smaller animals, usually mammals. The two predominant categories are rodents and lagomorphs (rabbits). Even-smaller animals are kept and raised, such as crickets and honey bees . Micro-livestock does not generally include fish ( aquaculture ) or chickens ( poultry farming ). Traditionally, animal husbandry was part of the subsistence farmer's way of life, producing not only

1775-430: Is used as fuel, either directly (as in some non-Western countries), or indirectly (as a source of methane for heating or for generating electricity). In regions where machine power is limited, some classes of livestock are used as draft stock, not only for tillage and other on-farm use, but also for transport of people and goods. In 1997, livestock provided energy for between an estimated 25 and 64% of cultivation energy in

1846-536: The Hepburn Act to replace the Elkins Act. The Hepburn Act set maximum freight rates for railroads, representing the greater interests of Americans. The regulations of the Hepburn Act strained railroads, which saw new competition from the rise of trucks and automobiles. The Panic of 1907 was, in part, a result of the turmoil of the railroad industry that resulted from the Hepburn Act. Livestock Livestock are

1917-1195: The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has worked in Zimbabwe to help farmers make their most of their livestock herds. In stock shows , farmers bring their best livestock to compete with one another. Humans and livestock make up more than 90% of the biomass of all terrestrial vertebrates , and almost as much as all insects combined. The value of global livestock production in 2013 has been estimated at 883 billion dollars, (constant 2005–2006 dollars). However, economic implications of livestock production extend further: to downstream industry (saleyards, abattoirs , butchers , milk processors, refrigerated transport, wholesalers, retailers, food services , tanneries, etc.), upstream industry (feed producers, feed transport, farm and ranch supply companies, equipment manufacturers, seed companies , vaccine manufacturers, etc.) and associated services ( veterinarians , nutrition consultants, shearers, etc.). Livestock provide

1988-687: The JBS plant in Brooks, Alberta and the Harmony Beef plant in Balzac, Alberta represent fully three-quarters of the Canadian beef supply. In other areas, livestock may be bought and sold in a bazaar or wet market , such as may be found in many parts of Central Asia . In non-Western countries, providing access to markets has encouraged farmers to invest in livestock, with the result being improved livelihoods. For example,

2059-535: The Near East and 6,000 BC in China . Domestication of horses dates to around 4,000 BC. Cattle have been domesticated since approximately 10,500 years ago. Chickens and other poultry may have been domesticated around 7,000 BC. The term "livestock" is indistinct and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any population of animals kept by humans for a useful, commercial purpose. Micro-livestock

2130-424: The domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat , eggs , milk , fur , leather , and wool . The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals who are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants , such as cattle , sheep , and goats . Horses are considered livestock in

2201-409: The 1930s, Ron Todd , moving to the rival VFA , because he was dissatisfied with the maximum pay that he could receive at Collingwood . As a result of World War II, the wage for a regular game was halved (to £1 and 10 shillings) for the 1942–45 seasons. After the war, the ceilings were modified several times in line with inflation . During the 1950s, the "Coulter law" was also blamed for shortening

Elkins Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

2272-492: The Elkins Act as an amendment to the Interstate Commerce Act. Without restrictive legislation, large firms could demand rebates or prices below the collusive price from railroad companies as condition for their business. As a result, it was common practice for railroads to offer competitive lower rates for transport between the large cities with high density of firms than the monopolistic rates between less industrial cities, irrespective of length of travel. Trusts constituted such

2343-499: The Elkins Act, it was argued that the law was drafted by Congress on behalf of the railroads, and that while some railroads curtailed rebates for some customers, for others the practice continued unabated. Congress was criticized for enacting only monetary fines for violations of the law and avoiding imposition of criminal penalties. Citing the shortcomings of the Elkins Act, Progressives began to call for greater regulation of railroad interests, and, in 1906, President Roosevelt signed

2414-554: The Secretary". Deadstock is defined in contradistinction to livestock as "animals that have died before slaughter, sometimes from illness or disease". It is illegal in many countries, such as Canada , to sell or process meat from dead animals for human consumption. Animal-rearing originated during the cultural transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans. Over time,

2485-791: The United States. The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb ( mutton ) as livestock, and all livestock as red meat . Poultry and fish are not included in the category. The latter is likely due to the fact that fish products are not governed by the USDA, but by the FDA . The breeding, maintenance, slaughter and general subjugation of livestock, called animal husbandry , is a part of modern agriculture and has been practiced in many cultures since humanity's transition to farming from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. It continues to play

2556-568: The animal products they consumed came from animals that were treated "humanely". Believing that livestock farming is cruel was cited as a reason for becoming vegan or vegetarian throughout the 2010s. Price ceiling A price ceiling is a government- or group-imposed price control , or limit, on how high a price is charged for a product, commodity, or service. Governments use price ceilings to protect consumers from conditions that could make commodities prohibitively expensive. Such conditions can occur during periods of high inflation, in

2627-465: The beginning of the Great Depression . In 1930, a new ceiling system, formulated by VFL administrator George Coulter, stipulated that individual players were to be paid no more than A£ 3 (approximately A$ 243 in 2017) for a regular home-and-away match, that they must also be paid if they were injured, that they could be paid no more than A£12 (approximately A$ 975 in 2017) for a finals match, and that

2698-518: The careers of star players such as John Coleman and Brian Gleeson , as they and their clubs could not pay for the private surgery that the players required to continue their careers. The Coulter law was abolished in 1968. However, in 1987 a club-level salary cap was introduced by the VFL and has been retained by its successor, the Australian Football League (AFL). On February 4, 2009,

2769-674: The ceiling payment of £3 per game fell below the legal minimum award wage . While players at the more successful clubs of the day, such as Richmond , had previously paid significantly higher average wages, clubs that were struggling financially often could not meet the ceiling under the Coulter law. Clubs with a longstanding amateur ethos became significantly more competitive under the Coulter law, such as Melbourne , which had long attracted and retained players by indirect or non-financial incentives (such as finding players employment not related to football). The Coulter law led to at least one VFL star of

2840-582: The collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farmed animals are unsuited to life in the natural world. Dogs were domesticated early; dogs appear in Europe and the Far East from about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated in multiple events sometime between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago in Southwest Asia. Pigs were domesticated by 8,500 BC in

2911-454: The data indicating this is frequently of superior quality to one used to estimate impacts on the spread of human pathogens. While some areas which currently support livestock animals are expected to avoid "extreme heat stress" even with high warming at the end of the century, others may stop being suitable as early as midcentury. In general, sub-Saharan Africa is considered to be the most vulnerable region to food security shocks caused by

Elkins Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

2982-411: The distributors will sell the manufacturer's product at certain prices (resale price maintenance), at or below a price ceiling (maximum resale price maintenance) or at or above a price floor . Isabella Weber and her colleagues argue for price caps to combat sellers' inflation . Paul Krugman changed his mind and expressed interest in adding price caps to the toolkit to flight inflation. There

3053-457: The elimination of rebates simply forces railroads to seek alternative noncompetitive means to secure business. The Elkins Act, thus, was more effective in stabilizing prices and entrenching price collusion than demonstrably lowering prices. A diverse group of stakeholders publicly supported the Elkins Act. Citizens who supported the law hoped that reducing price discrimination would lower freight prices uniformly, and railroad interests lobbied for

3124-404: The event of an investment bubble, or in the event of monopoly ownership of a product, all of which can cause problems if imposed for a long period without controlled rationing, leading to shortages . Further problems can occur if a government sets unrealistic price ceilings, causing business failures, stock crashes, or even economic crises. On the other hand, price ceilings give a government to

3195-497: The food needed by the family but also the fuel, fertiliser, clothing, transport and draught power. Killing the animal for food was a secondary consideration, and wherever possible their products, such as wool, eggs, milk and blood (by the Maasai ) were harvested while the animal was still alive. In the traditional system of transhumance , humans and livestock moved seasonally between fixed summer and winter pastures; in montane regions

3266-423: The guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given. Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one population of animals, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals. Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on

3337-432: The handicapped, single parents, elderly, and others who are not able to queue for days. They cause inefficient allocation, as apartments are not bought by those willing to pay the most for them. Also, those who get an apartment are unwilling to leave it, even when their family or work situation changes, as they may not sell it at what they feel the market price should be. The inefficiencies increase apartment shortage and raise

3408-476: The impacts of climate change on their livestock, as over 180 million people across those nations are expected to see significant declines in suitability of their rangelands around midcentury. On the other hand, Japan, the United States and nations in Europe are considered the least vulnerable. This is as much a product of pre-existing differences in human development index and other measures of national resilience and widely varying importance of pastoralism to

3479-412: The law, the most pronounced change in railroad pricing was the elimination of rebates. However, later analysis has found that decreases in carrier prices are better attributable to decreases in the costs of operation due to technology advances. The elimination of rebates led the railroads to seek other methods to compete for business, leading Governor Albert B. Cummins of Iowa to declare, in 1905, that

3550-521: The market price of other apartments. Uniform wage ceilings were introduced in Australian rules football to address uneven competition for players. In the Victorian Football League (VFL) a declining competitive balance followed a 1925 expansion that had affected clubs such as Footscray , Hawthorn and North Melbourne . The effects on financially weaker clubs were exacerbated in 1929 by

3621-459: The military to seize control of all the rice processing plants in the country temporarily and to force them to produce at full capacity. He alleged they had been avoiding doing so in response to the price caps. On January 3, 2007, an International Herald Tribune article reported that Chávez's price ceilings were causing shortages of materials used in the construction industry. According to an April 4, 2008, article from CBS News , Chávez ordered

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3692-652: The movement of livestock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases. Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this is now considered poor practice in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antibiotic resistance . Animals living under intensive conditions are particularly prone to internal and external parasites; increasing numbers of sea lice are affecting farmed salmon in Scotland. Reducing

3763-755: The national diet as it is an outcome of direct impacts of climate on each country. Animal ethics is a branch of ethics that examines human-animal relationships and the moral consideration of non-animals. Debates within the field address the moral implications of using animals for human consumption and the responsibilities humans have toward livestock. It is estimated that worldwide, 74% of livestock are raised in factory farms, characterized by densely confined animals. Consumers are typically against intensive livestock farming when surveyed. A majority are unaware of routine controversial practices such as break trimming, separation of calves from their mothers and gas chamber slaughter. Three quarters of US adults surveyed believed

3834-493: The nationalization of the cement industry, which had been exporting its products to receive higher prices outside the country. The Domestic Gas and Electricity (Tariff Cap) Act 2018 (c. 21) introduced a default tariff energy price cap in England, Wales and Scotland as part of the UK's energy policy , to safeguard the 11 million households on standard variable tariffs. Another example is

3905-465: The nature of the railroad industry may have not have permitted perfect competition . Economist Robert Harbeson argues that the price wars prior to the Elkins Act suggest that the railroad industry was more oligopolistic . In an industry with decreasing marginal costs and high fixed costs , it would be futile to enforce a price cap . Moreover, he argues, stronger regulation would have prevented carriers from reaching economies of scale . In reaction to

3976-620: The overall methane emissions of the planet. Livestock are responsible for 34% of all human-related emissions of nitrous oxide , through feed production and manure. .Best production practices are estimated to be able to reduce livestock emissions by 30%. There are numerous interlinked effects of climate change on livestock rearing. This activity is both heavily affected by and a substantial driver of anthropogenic climate change due to its greenhouse gas emissions . As of 2011, some 400 million people relied on livestock in some way to secure their livelihood. The commercial value of this sector

4047-471: The parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability. According to the Special Report on Climate Change and Land , livestock diseases are expected to get worse as climate change increases temperature and precipitation variability. Since many livestock are herd animals, they were historically driven to market "on the hoof" to a town or other central location. The method

4118-505: The passage of the Act as a means of enforcing collusive pricing. While the Act restricted preferential pricing, it did not specify what constituted a "reasonable" shipping rate; thus, railroads could use the law to entrench a system of collusive prices. Collusion is unsustainable in a market where it is easy to undercut competitors. However in industries that only have a small number of competitors (e.g. railroads, airlines, or transportation companies operating between two given cities) collusion

4189-435: The power to prevent corporations from price gouging or otherwise setting prices that create negative outcomes for the government's society. While price ceilings are often imposed by governments, there are also price ceilings that are implemented by non-governmental organizations such as companies, such as the practice of resale price maintenance . With resale price maintenance, a manufacturer and its distributors agree that

4260-407: The result. Rent Controls were instituted in the US in the 1940s by then-president Franklin D. Roosevelt and his newly-formed Office of Price Administration . The Office instituted price ceilings on a wide range of commodities, including rent controls that allowed returning World War II veterans and their families to afford housing. Following the predictions of economic models, this policy lowered

4331-411: The severity of punishment, legislators hoped to encourage firms to testify against each other, and promote stricter enforcement of the law. Following the passage of the Elkins Act, real freight rates decreased only slightly. In 1905, leaders in the regulation movement testified before Congress to identify the reduction in prices that resulted from the Act. Yet, in the first months following the passage of

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4402-543: The social, as well as economic, importance of livestock in non-Western countries and in regions of rural poverty, and such evidence is not confined to pastoral and nomadic societies. Social values in developed countries can also be considerable. For example, in a study of livestock ranching permitted on national forest land in New Mexico, US, it was concluded that "ranching maintains traditional values and connects families to ancestral lands and cultural heritage ", and that

4473-500: The standard shipping price, but demand a rebate from the carrier. Court cases brought before the commission generally did not result in punitive action, as the ICC was composed primarily of railroad interests. Carriers found guilty of price discrimination, moreover, could appeal the ICC decision to federal courts, delaying punishment for years. The Elkins Act was named for its sponsor, Senator Stephen B. Elkins of West Virginia , who introduced

4544-518: The sublethal impacts, such as lower quantity of quality of products like milk , greater vulnerability to conditions like lameness or even impaired reproduction . Another impact concerns reduced quantity or quality of animal feed , whether due to drought or as a secondary impact of CO2 fertilization effect . Difficulties with growing feed could reduce worldwide livestock headcounts by 7–10% by midcentury. Animal parasites and vector-borne diseases are also spreading further than they had before, and

4615-723: The summer pasture was up in the mountains, the winter pasture in the valleys. Animals can be kept extensively or intensively. Extensive systems involve animals roaming at will, or under the supervision of a herdsman, often for their protection from predators . Ranching in the Western United States involves large herds of cattle grazing widely over public and private lands. Similar cattle stations are found in South America, Australia and other places with large areas of land and low rainfall. Ranching systems have been used for sheep , deer , ostrich , emu , llama and alpaca . In

4686-575: The supply of rentable properties available to veterans. At the same time, there was an increase in homeownership and the number of homes for sale. This outcome could be explained by landowners converting their rentable property to sellable property, due to the financial unviability of rental markets and no incentive by the landowner to destroy their property or leave it vacant. According to professors Niko Määttänen and Ari Hyytinen, price ceilings on Helsinki City Hitas apartments are highly inefficient economically. They cause queuing and discriminate against

4757-541: The uplands of the United Kingdom, sheep are turned out on the fells in spring and graze the abundant mountain grasses untended, being brought to lower altitudes late in the year, with supplementary feeding being provided in winter. In rural locations, pigs and poultry can obtain much of their nutrition from scavenging, and in African communities, hens may live for months without being fed, and still produce one or two eggs

4828-400: The wages could not be augmented with other bonuses or lump-sum payments. The "Coulter law", as it became known, remained a strictly binding price ceiling through its history. During its early years, the Coulter law adversely affected only a minority of players, such as stars and players at wealthier clubs. Those individuals experienced, in effect, a drastic cut in wages. For instance, from 1931

4899-519: The world's irrigated systems, and that 300 million draft animals were used globally in small-scale agriculture . Although livestock production serves as a source of income, it can provide additional economic values for rural families, often serving as a major contributor to food security and economic security . Livestock can serve as insurance against risk and is an economic buffer (of income and food supply) in some regions and some economies (e.g., during some African droughts). However, its use as

4970-836: The year, silage or hay is made to cover the times of year when the grass stops growing, and fertiliser, feed and other inputs are bought onto the farm from outside. Livestock farmers have often dealt with natural world animals' predation and theft by rustlers . In North America, animals such as gray wolves , grizzly bears , cougars , and coyotes are sometimes considered a threat to livestock. In Eurasia and Africa, predators include wolves, leopards , tigers , lions , dholes , Asiatic black bears , crocodiles , spotted hyenas , and other carnivores . In South America, feral dogs , jaguars , anacondas , and spectacled bears are threats to livestock. In Australia, dingoes , foxes , and wedge-tailed eagles are common predators, with an additional threat from domestic dogs who may kill in response to

5041-400: Was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a compound word combining the words "live" and "stock". In some periods, " cattle " and "livestock" have been used interchangeably. Today, the modern meaning of cattle is domesticated bovines , while livestock has a wider sense. United States federal legislation defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities eligible or ineligible for

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