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45-464: In Ancient Greece, Eleutheria was also an epithet for the goddess Artemis , and as such she was worshipped in Myra of Lycia . The Roman equivalent of the goddess Eleutheria is Libertas , a goddess in her own right, and a personification of liberty. For R. F. Willets, Cretan dialect 'Eleuthia' would connect Eileithyia (or perhaps the goddess "Eleutheria") to Eleusis . The name is probably related with

90-869: A byname , is a descriptive term (word or phrase) commonly accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a real or fictitious person, place, or thing. It is usually literally descriptive, as in Alfred the Great , Suleiman the Magnificent , Richard the Lionheart , and Ladislaus the Short , or allusive , as in Edward the Confessor , William the Conqueror , Æthelred the Unready , John Lackland , Mehmed

135-515: A city in Crete named Eleutherna . Walter Burkert believes that Eileithyia is the Greek goddess of birth and that her name is pure-Greek. However the relation with the Greek prefix ἐλεύθ is uncertain, because the prefix appears in some Pre-Greek toponyms like Ἐλευθέρνα ( Eleutherna ). Hyginus describes Eleutheria as a daughter of Zeus and Hera . In Roman mythology , Demeter ( Ceres ) has

180-405: A daughter named Libera ("Liberty/Freedom"). I. F. Stone , who taught himself Greek in his old age, wrote a book, The Trial of Socrates , pointing out that Socrates and Plato do not value eleutheria , freedom; instead were Sparta-lovers, wanting a monarch, an oligarchy, instead of a democracy, a republic. The French philosopher Michel Foucault , in lectures given at Berkeley and Boulder, made

225-424: A focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or 'smear word.' ... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears." Descriptive bynames were given to

270-405: A glorified nickname or sobriquet , and for this reason some linguists have argued that they should be considered as pronouns . It has also been argued that epithets are a phenomenon with the syntax–semantics interface , because they have components of both, and also a pragmatic dimension. An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet

315-477: A modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, "cheerful money" and "suicidal sky". Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words. Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalist William Safire discussed the use of the word in a 2008 column in The New York Times : "'I am working on a piece about nationalism with

360-513: A person to distinguish them from other people of the same name. In England bynames were used during the period when the use of surnames had not been extensively adopted. As an example the Domesday Book of 1086 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of "Richard". Most (40%), such as "Richard of Coursey" are identified with a locational byname, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as "Richard

405-422: A persuasive tactic. Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings. The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing. This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involve shifting

450-453: A placement as professor of classical philology at Technische Universität Berlin (1966–1969), and as guest professor at Harvard University for a year (1968). The start of a new era began in 1981 when his work of ancient Greek religious anthropology, Homo Necans (1972), was published in an Italian translation, followed in 1983 by an English translation. The book is today considered an outstanding account of concepts in Greek religion. He

495-467: A reference to the mythological place of birth or numinous presence at a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo ( Apollo Pythios ) and Delphic Apollo ( Apollo Delphinios ). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at

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540-446: Is " Apollo , [as] leader of the Muses " and therefore patron of the arts and sciences, while Phoibos Apollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. " Athena protects the city as polias , oversees handicrafts as ergane , joins battle as promachos and grants victory as nike ." Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, such as

585-683: Is also sometimes called antonomasia , as a Cicero for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as "Pelides" in the case of Achilles, or "Saturnia" in the case of the goddess Juno in Virgil's Aeneid , is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet. In William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet , epithets are used in the prologue, such as "star-cross'd lovers" and "death-mark'd love." Epithets were in layman's terms glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve

630-417: Is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if "cloud-gathering Zeus" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. "The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to the immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse", Walter Burkert has noted. Some epithets are known by

675-572: The epitheton Comes as companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g., in Latin pilleati , "the felt hat-wearers" for the brothers Castor and Pollux . Some epithets resist explanation. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration of Jesus (e.g., "Christ"; " Prince of Peace "; " The Good Shepherd "), of Mary, Mother of Jesus (e.g., " Mother of God "; " Panagia "), and of

720-707: The Balzan Prize for the Study of the Ancient World), he retired as an emeritus in 1996. He died in Zürich , aged 84. Three of his most important academic works (a selection from seventeen books and two hundred essays, including encyclopedia contributions and memorabilia), which are still at the base of the study of Hellenic religion, are Homo Necans (1972, English 1983), Greek Religion (1977, English 1985), and Ancient Mystery Cults (1982 lectures, published 1987). In his preface to

765-636: The Universities of Erlangen and Munich (1950–1954), and obtained his doctorate in philosophy at Erlangen in 1955. Following his marriage, he became an assistant in course teaching at Erlangen for five years (1957–1961) and, then returned to his former university as lecturer for another five years (until 1966). From early 1965 he worked as a junior fellow in the Center for Hellenic Studies in Washington, D.C. for one year. The first academic era of his life ended with

810-537: The 1960s, combining in the modern way the findings of archaeology and epigraphy with the work of poets, historians, and philosophers. He was a member of both the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He published books on the balance between lore and science among the followers of Pythagoras , and more extensively on ritual and archaic cult survival, on

855-508: The Conqueror and Bloody Mary . The word epithet also may refer to an abusive, defamatory, or derogatory word or phrase. This use is criticized by Martin Manser and other proponents of linguistic prescription . H. W. Fowler noted in 1926 that " epithet is suffering a vulgarization that is giving it an abusive imputation." Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of their name, as what might be described as

900-492: The English translation of Homo Necans Burkert, who characterised himself on this occasion as "a philologist who starts from ancient Greek texts and attempts to find biological, psychological and sociological explanations for religious phenomena", expressed some of the principles underlying a book that had seemed somewhat revolutionary to German readers in 1972 in its consistent application of inter-relationships of myth and ritual,

945-504: The Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests" all the way to " Johnny Football & King James". American comic books tend to give epithets to superheroes , such as The Phantom being "The Ghost Who Walks", Superman called "The Man of Steel", and "The Dynamic Duo" Batman and Robin , who are individually known as "The Dark Knight" and "The Boy Wonder". Additionally, epíteto ,

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990-496: The Homeric epics the Iliad and Odyssey , onlooking women raise a cry of worship ( ololugma ) at this point in the ritual . After the animal is skinned and cut into pieces, the inner parts are tasted and shared, and a part burned on the altar with incense. The remainder is roasted and eaten by all participants present. If the entrails are of normal shape and color, it is an omen that

1035-604: The Latin term epitheton necessarium , as they are required to distinguish the bearers, as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart ( Richard I of England ), or Charles the Fat alongside Charles the Bald . The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, such as Alexander the Great as well as Constantine the Great . Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion and are therefore known as epitheton ornans . Thus,

1080-570: The Olympian Gods with Zeus . But in specific cults there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus, the Greek word Trismegistos ("thrice grand") was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention, Thoth , later as an epitheton for the Greek Hermes and, finally, the fully equated Roman Mercurius Mercury (both were messenger of

1125-535: The Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature. In many polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient India and Iran (the most ancient of which go back to a common Indo-Iranian period), Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: Apollo Musagetes

1170-626: The Spartan Carneian festival . Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one. Poseidon Erechtheus and Artemis Orthia reflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one that is generally considered its pendan. Thus, most Roman gods and goddesses, especially the Twelve Olympians , had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such as Jupiter as head of

1215-438: The animal's head and into the altar fire. A lock of hair from the animal is then cut and burned, libation being poured on the altar with prayer. After silence is proclaimed, the music of flutes begins and the animal is slain. The larger animals were killed with a sacrificial axe. The head is turned toward the heavens, and the throat cut. The blood then spreads on the altar and is caught in a vessel. In early literary sources such as

1260-468: The application to texts of the kind of functionalism espoused in Jane Ellen Harrison 's Themis and the use of structuralism to elucidate an ethology of Greek religion, its social aspect. Burkert confirmed that an impetus for his book had come from Konrad Lorenz , On Aggression , "which seemed to offer new insight into the disquieting manifestations of violence." The book argues that solidarity

1305-603: The argument had been stated at length." With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, "The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language." Rhetoricians use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as

1350-403: The butler" and "Richard the bald" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive byname. Some of the individuals, such as Richard Basset , made use of what would now be recognized as a surname. The distinction between a byname and a surname is that the byname is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the Bald, for example,

1395-542: The classical Roman author Virgil systematically called his main hero pius Aeneas , the epithet being pius , meaning religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling the armsbearer of Aeneas fidus Achates , the epithet being fidus , which means faithful or loyal. Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancient epic poetry , notably in that of Homer or the northern European sagas (see above, as well as epithets in Homer ). When James Joyce uses

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1440-504: The gods). Among the Greeks, T.H. Price notes that the nurturing power of Kourotrophos might be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifying Hera or Demeter . Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood or other ties. Thus, in pagan Rome, several divinities gods and heroes were given

1485-544: The mill", while another might be described as "John Smith the short". Walter Burkert Walter Burkert ( German: [ˈbʊɐ̯kɐt] ; 2 February 1931 – 11 March 2015) was a German scholar of Greek mythology and cult . A professor of classics at the University of Zurich , Switzerland, he taught in the UK and the US. He has influenced generations of students of religion since

1530-511: The orator. "It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g., if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if

1575-401: The phrase "the snot-green sea" he is playing Homer's familiar epithet "the wine-dark sea". The phrase "Discreet Telemachus " is also considered an epithet. The Greek term antonomasia , in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as "Pelides", signifying the "son of Peleus", to identify Achilles . An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term

1620-429: The purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant. It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community, or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was. The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day, with many examples ranging from "Aphrodite

1665-577: The ritual killing at the heart of religion, on mystery religions, and on the reception in the Hellenic world of Near Eastern and Persian culture , which sets Greek religion in its wider Aegean and Near Eastern context. Burkert was born in Neuendettelsau . He married Maria Bosch in 1957 and they had three children, Reinhard, Andrea and Cornelius. He died on 11 March 2015 in Zürich , Switzerland. He studied classical philology , history, and philosophy at

1710-413: The ritual with myth. Firstly, under the direction of the priest, priestess, father, mother (at least, in certain women's rites like Thesmophoria ), or king, a basket containing the utensils and a bowl of water were placed around the altar. The participants then dipped their hands into the consecrated water, and sprinkled it on the altar, victim and offerer. Salted-barley corns from the basket were thrown on

1755-425: The role of poetic creation and re-creation are set aside "in order to confront the power and effect of tradition as fully as possible". The term gods , Burkert concludes, remains fluid, whereas sacrifice is a fact (p. xv). In 1985, Burkert used ancient sources (both literary and visual representations) to put together some of the pieces of how ancient Greek sacrificial ritual actually proceeded, and to link together

1800-507: The sacrifice is acceptable to the gods. In both the Iliad and Odyssey , as well as other early sources such as the Homeric Hymn to Hermes , the priest or sacrifice-leader wrapped the thigh pieces in fat and burned them on the altar. The tail and back, along with other bones and pieces with less meat left over were burned with a libation. After this procedure, it was then that the worshippers shared

1845-536: The saints (e.g., " Pope Saint John Paul the Great , Saint Theophan the Recluse "). " Our Lady of Lourdes " is essentially periphrasis , except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked. An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits

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1890-513: The same argument for Socrates' failure to invoke parrhesia , freedom of speech, the obligation to speak the truth for the common good at personal risk, in his own defense at his trial, preferring to die in obedience to law as above men. Athenians held that they democratically shaped law, seeing Socrates' stance as treason. Epithet#Religion An epithet (from Ancient Greek ἐπίθετον (epítheton)  'adjective', from ἐπίθετος (epíthetos)  'additional'), also

1935-407: Was achieved among the Greeks through a sacred crime with due reparations: "for the strange prominence of animal slaughter in ancient religion this still seems to be the most economical, and most humane explanation" (p. xv). Its first chapter "Sacrifice as an Act of Killing" offers conclusions that are supported in the ensuing chapters through individual inquiries into myth, festival and ritual, in which

1980-455: Was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton. The use of bynames did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included people with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of bynames to further distinguish the person. For example, one "John Smith" might be described as "John Smith of

2025-610: Was professor of classical philology at the University of Zurich (1969–1996); visiting professor of classical literature at the University of California for two years (1977 and 1988); lecturer at Harvard in 1982; dean of the philosophical faculty I at Zürich (1986–1988); and presented the Gifford Lectures at the University of St Andrews in Scotland (1989). After holding these posts and receiving numerous honorary awards (including, in 1990,

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