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75-478: Electronic publishing has become common in scientific publishing where it has been argued that peer-reviewed scientific journals are in the process of being replaced by electronic publishing. It is also becoming common to distribute books , magazines , and newspapers to consumers through tablet reading devices , a market that is growing by millions each year, generated by online vendors such as Apple's iTunes bookstore, Amazon's bookstore for Kindle, and books in

150-472: A Bachelor's degree ). One of the prerequesite of a Grande Ecole (along with having the Grande Ecole -label), is to select students via national competitive examinations . The latter are well-acknowledged to be particularly stringent. While students prepare for these National Competitive examinations right after their high school diploma (often obtained with a magna cum laude or summa cum laude ) during

225-450: A two-year preparatory programme in high schools proposing such curricula; some other students will start an Undergraduate or Bachelor's degree and prepare for the national Competitive examinations along their studies at Universities or private Colleges in France or abroad. Both pathways have their own advantages and drawbacks. As CNAM provides remote and continuous education, the access to

300-463: A book can be mechanically reproduced or copied. Electronic publishing raises new questions in relation to copyright, because if an e-book or e-journal is available online, millions of Internet users may be able to view a single electronic copy of the document, without any "copies" being made. Emerging evidence suggests that e-publishing may be more collaborative than traditional paper-based publishing; e-publishing often involves more than one author, and

375-1002: A budget of €174 million, it is the largest university in Europe in terms of Budget for distance learning and continued education , and in terms of enrolment, slightly ahead of the University of Hagen . Under the aegis of the French Ministry of National Education , the National Directory of Professional Certifications and the Accreditation authority for French professional engineers , CNAM provides Grande Ecole and non- Grande Ecole certificates, diplomas , Bachelor's degrees , Master's degrees and PhD's in Science, Engineering, Law, Management ( AMBA -accredited ), Finance, Accountancy , Urban planning and Humanities , all designed to abide by

450-403: A direct effect on the publishing questions, letting creators and users go further in the traditional process (writer-editor-publishing house). The traditional publishing, and especially the creation part, were first revolutionized by new desktop publishing softwares appearing in the 1980s, and by the text databases created for the encyclopedias and directories . At the same time the multimedia

525-478: A disadvantage when trying to publish in these journals, regardless of the quality of the scientific study itself. Yet many international universities require publication in these high-impact journals by both their students and faculty. One way that some international authors are beginning to overcome this problem is by contracting with freelance copy editors who are native speakers of English and specialize in ESL (English as

600-497: A dministratifs, t echniciens, s ocial et s anté | English: library staff, engineering staff, administrative staff, technical taff, social and health services staff). The CNAM provides via its doctoral college PhD-curricula via distance-learning (along the job), or on-site. There are 91 PhD candidates enrolled at the EiCNAM Grande Ecole engineering School, and a total of 350 professors-researchers and academic staff for

675-494: A formal article. Articles are usually prepared at the end of a project, or at the end of components of a particularly large one. In preparing such an article vigorous rules for scientific writing have to be followed. Often, career advancement depends upon publishing in high-impact journals, which, especially in hard and applied sciences, are usually published in English. Consequently, scientists with poor English writing skills are at

750-518: A handful of students performed better, which is in itself, the principle of a competitive examination . In some Grande Ecole , it is possible to retake a Grande Ecole national competitive examination as many times as one wishes, whereas some others limit the possibilities to retake the examination to a maximum of three times. Graduates from the Grande Ecole Engineering School: EiCNAM, receive coloured graduation scarf during

825-415: A network. Electronic publishing is also being used in the field of test-preparation in developed as well as in developing economies for student education (thus partly replacing conventional books) – for it enables content and analytics combined – for the benefit of students. The use of electronic publishing for textbooks may become more prevalent with Apple Books from Apple Inc. and Apple's negotiation with

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900-797: A second language) editing to polish their manuscripts' English to a level that high-impact journals will accept. Although the content of an article is more important than the format, it is customary for scientific articles to follow a standard structure, which varies only slightly in different subjects. Although the IMRAD structure emphasizes the organization of content, and in scientific journal articles, each section (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) has unique conventions for scientific writing style. The following are key guidelines for formatting, although each journal etc will to some extent have its own house style: Increasing reliance on digital abstracting services and academic search engines means that

975-504: A total of 340 doctoral students from 40 different nationalities enrolled at CNAM worldwide, at which 60 thesis defence/examination take place yearly. The doctoral college of CNAM comprises two doctoral schools: Doctoral schools in partnership with other French Universities: In 2022, amongst the 4366 curricula in total, the array of the Cnam's academic curricula spans the following : The French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts

1050-508: A traditional "print run". E-publication is enabling new authors to release books that would be unlikely to be profitable for traditional publishers. While the term "electronic publishing" is primarily used in the 2010s to refer to online and web-based publishers, the term has a history of being used to describe the development of new forms of production, distribution, and user interaction in regard to computer-based production of text and other interactive media . The first digitization initiative

1125-451: A vast body of academic papers that spans various disciplines within the natural and social sciences . It primarily consists of academic papers that present original empirical research and theoretical contributions. These papers serve as essential sources of knowledge and are commonly referred to simply as " the literature " within specific research fields. The process of academic publishing involves disseminating research findings to

1200-651: A whole week on-site. The CNAM hosts also a museum dedicated to scientific and industrial inventions: Musée des Arts et Métiers (English: the Industrial Design Museum) which welcomed 250,000 visitors in 2018, and is located on the Parisian campus of the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts at 292 rue Saint Martin, in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris , in the historical area of the city named Le Marais . Founded on 10 October 1794, during

1275-791: A wider audience. Researchers submit their work to reputable journals or conferences, where it undergoes rigorous evaluation by experts in the field. This evaluation, known as peer review , ensures the quality, validity, and reliability of the research before it becomes part of the scientific literature. Peer-reviewed publications contribute significantly to advancing our understanding of the world and shaping future research endeavors. Original scientific research first published in scientific journals constitutes primary literature . Patents and technical reports , which cover minor research results and engineering and design efforts, including computer software , are also classified as primary literature. Secondary sources comprise review articles that summarize

1350-484: Is .epub , used in many e-book formats . .epub is a free and open standard available in many publishing programs. Another common format is .folio, which is used by the Adobe Digital Publishing Suite to create content for Apple's iPad tablets and apps. After an article is submitted to an academic journal for consideration, there can be a delay ranging from several months to more than two years before it

1425-655: Is a Grand Etablissment (like the prestigious Collège de France founded in 1530), but is also a Grande Ecole which provides Grande-Ecole degrees, i.e. solely Master's Degrees , MBAs and PhDs (Grande Ecoles do not bestow diplomas lower than a European Master's degree level). A Grande Ecole, literally "Great School", is a higher education institution and part of a French league of universities, which select students via national competitive entrance examinations (in French: concours ) to safeguard meritocracy and impartiality. The French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts

1500-464: Is a European catalog that offers index cards on millions of digital objects and links to their digital libraries. In the same year, HathiTrust was created to put together the contents of many university e-libraries from USA and Europe, as well as Google Books and Internet Archive . In 2016, over six millions of users had been using HathiTrust. The first digitization projects were transferring physical content into digital content. Electronic publishing

1575-540: Is aiming to integrate the whole process of editing and publishing (production, layout, publication) in the digital world. Alain Mille, in the book Pratiques de l'édition numérique (edited by Michael E. Sinatra and Marcello Vitali-Rosati), says that the beginnings of Internet and the Web are the very core of electronic publishing, since they pretty much determined the biggest changes in the production and diffusion patterns. Internet has

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1650-927: Is an AMBA -accredited French grande école and grand établissement . It is a member of the Conférence des Grandes écoles , which is an equivalent to the Ivy League schools in the United States , Oxbridge in the United Kingdom , the C9 League in China , or the Imperial Universities in Japan . CNAM is one of the founding Schools of the Grande école system, with École polytechnique and Ecole Normale Supérieure in 1794, in

1725-530: Is customarily not indexed by major databases and can include manuals, theses and dissertations, or newsletters and bulletins. The significance of different types of the scientific publications can vary between disciplines and change over time. According to James G. Speight and Russell Foote , peer-reviewed journals are the most prominent and prestigious form of publication. University presses are more prestigious than commercial press publication. The status of working papers and conference proceedings depends on

1800-576: Is infused with the values of the Lumières , as part of the French enlightenment era , of the 18th Century French Humanism , and of the French encyclopedists , whose goal was to provide emancipation via knowledge for everyone; the latter being often followed by most Grande Ecole and Universities in France, along with Universalism and Cartesianism . This background paved the way to nowadays CNAM's values of meritocracy, solidarity and academic excellence. Under

1875-404: Is possible through new interactions between the author and its readers, and can be an important method for inspiration but also for visibility. The electronic publishing process follows some aspects of the traditional paper-based publishing process but differs from traditional publishing in two ways: 1) it does not include using an offset printing press to print the final product and 2) it avoids

1950-437: Is published in a journal, rendering journals a less than ideal format for disseminating current research. In some fields, such as astronomy and some areas of physics , the role of the journal in disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint repositories such as arXiv.org . However, scholarly journals still play an important role in quality control and establishing scientific credit. In many instances,

2025-519: Is to preserve the evidence for scientific priority, and in particular for priority for obtaining patents. They have also been used in scientific disputes. Since the availability of computers, the notebooks in some data-intensive fields have been kept as database records, and appropriate software is commercially available. The work on a project is typically published as one or more technical reports, or articles. In some fields both are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or preprints followed by

2100-502: The Trésor de la langue française au Québec . This foundation of e-texts, named Frantext, was published on a compact disc under the brand name Discotext , and then on the worldwide web in 1998. In 1974, American inventor and futurist Raymond Kurzweil developed a scanner which was equipped with an Omnifont software that enabled optical character recognition for numeric inputs. The digitization projects could then be more ambitious since

2175-464: The Bibliothèque nationale de France launched a vast digitization program. The president François Mitterrand had wanted since 1988 to create a new and innovative digital library, and it was published in 1997 under the name of Gallica . In 2014, the digital library was offering 80 255 online books and over a million documents, including prints and manuscripts. In 2003, Wikisource was launched, and

2250-619: The Bologna Process of the European Union . A student accumulates those credits, which are generally transferable between curricula. A Bachelor's is awarded once 180 ECTS have been obtained (3 years of higher studies after high school, abbreviated in French as " bac+ 3 "); a Master's is awarded once 120 additional credits have been reached (5 years of higher studies after high school, abbreviated in French as " bac+ 5 ", i.e. 2 additional years after

2325-467: The French Revolution , it was then proposed by Abbé Henri Grégoire as a "depository for machines, models, tools, drawings, descriptions and books in all the areas of the arts and trades". The deserted Saint-Martin-des-Champs Priory (and particularly its Gothic refectory by Pierre de Montereau ) was selected as the site of collection, which officially opened in 1802. Originally charged with

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2400-463: The Grande Ecole does not require that candidates go through preparatory classes . Instead, obligatory classes and tests in Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology and English, along with a minimum required work experience (at least 6 months in a relevant field to the one the candidate wishes to apply to) and a minimum degree in a relevant field (an Undergraduate degree, i.e. 2 years of higher education after

2475-756: The Licence / Bachelor's degrees , and the Master's and Doctorat degrees. The Bachelor's and the Master's degrees are organised in semesters: 6 for the Bachelor's and 4 for the Master's. Those levels of study include various "parcours" (in English: paths or curricula) based on UE ( Unités d'enseignement or Modules , in English: Teaching Units or Modules), each worth a defined number of European credits (ECTS) and thus abiding by

2550-512: The Musée des Arts et Métiers . On 6 April 2010, the cable suspending the original pendulum bob snapped causing irreparable damage to the pendulum and to the marble flooring of the museum. The novel Foucault's Pendulum written by Umberto Eco deals greatly with this establishment, as the Foucault pendulum hung in the museum plays a great role in the storyline. The novel was published in 1988 prior to

2625-682: The de facto acceptance in the academic discourse is predicted by the inclusion in such selective sources. Commercial providers of proprietary data include Chemical Abstracts Service , Web of Science and Scopus , while open data (and often open source , non-profit and library -led) services include DOAB , DOAJ and (for open access works) Unpaywall (based on CrossRef and Microsoft Academic records enriched with OAI-PMH data from open archives ). The transfer of copyright from author to publisher, used by some journals, can be controversial because many authors want to propagate their ideas more widely and re-use their material elsewhere without

2700-480: The 2010s, due to the rapid consumer adoption of smartphones and tablets. At first, native apps for each mobile platform were required to reach all audiences, but in an effort toward universal device compatibility, attention has turned to using HTML5 to create web apps that can run on any browser and function on many devices. The benefit of electronic publishing comes from using three attributes of digital technology: XML tags to define content, style sheets to define

2775-879: The CNAM's board of directors enacted a reform via the directory of decisions number 2016-24 AG to 2016–33 AG, which goal was to create 16 national pedagogic teams (French: équipes pédagogiques nationales | abbr.: EPN) in lieu of the School for industrial sciences and technologies (French: écoles Sciences industrielles et technologies de l’information | abbr.: Siti) and the School for Management and Society Management et société (French: école Management et Société | abbr.: MS). Some Pedagogic Teams below are also sometimes Schools per se.   Schools and institutes of CNAM The academic staff headcount in 2020 reached 1,670, with 568 professors/researchers and 1,120 academic staff, which are called at CNAM: Biatss (French: b ibliothèque, i ngénieurs,

2850-543: The European Bologna Process , and thus complying with the European Credit Transfer System . It is the only higher education institution in Europe to provide Physics , Chemistry and Life-Science engineer's degrees up to a PhD-level (some of which 100% remotely) via distance learning and via its so-called "hybrid learning" which includes intermittent laboratories classes concentrated during

2925-519: The French High School Diploma called Baccalauréat ) will be expected as minimum requirements from candidates. Additionally, an interview of candidates will be conducted to select appropriate future Grande Ecole students. The Competitive Examination can only be retaken thrice. The most selective Grande Ecole will enroll less than 10% of candidates, i.e. 90% of candidates are bound to fail, not because they performed poorly, but because

3000-664: The French national committee responsible for evaluation and accreditation of higher education institutions for the training of professional engineers in France (in French: Commission des Titres d'Ingénieur , abbr.: CTI). Some CNAM regional centres are hosted by other partner universities, for example the CNAM centre of Aix-en-Provence is located at the campus of the French Grande Ecole engineering and research school: Arts et Métiers ParisTech . Source: Africa: America: Asia: Europe: On 7 July 2016,

3075-812: The Google Play Bookstore. Market research suggested that half of all magazine and newspaper circulation would be via digital delivery by the end of 2015 and that half of all reading in the United States would be done without paper by 2015. Although distribution via the Internet (also known as online publishing or web publishing when in the form of a website) is nowadays strongly associated with electronic publishing, there are many non-network electronic publications such as encyclopedias on CD and DVD , as well as technical and reference publications relied on by mobile users and others without reliable and high-speed access to

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3150-534: The Parisian campus, 3% in Overseas France , 11% abroad and the rest in metropolitan France, of which 1,592 are enrolled at the Grande Ecole engineer school of CNAM: the EiCNAM . The Parisian campus and headquarters of the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts is located in one of the last medieval architectural area of Paris, in the historical district of Le Marais in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris, at

3225-452: The books available in the world (over 130 million books) to make them accessible online. 10 years later, 25 000 000 books, from a hundred countries and in 400 languages, are on the platform. This was possible because by that time, robotic scanners could digitize around 6 000 books per hour. In 2008, the prototype of Europeana was launched; and by 2010, the project had been giving access to over 10 million digital objects. The Europeana library

3300-458: The collection of inventions, it has since become an educational institution. At the present time, it is known primarily as a grand-école and university for: The collection of inventions is now operated by the Musée des Arts et Métiers . The original Foucault pendulum was exhibited as part of the collection, but was moved to the Panthéon in 1995 during museum renovation. It was later reinstalled in

3375-538: The diploma bestowal ceremony, depending on the major they belong to: In 1973, the Louis-de-Broglie Foundation was created at the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts by Nobel Prize Laureate in Physics Louis de Broglie along with Physics Nobel-Prize Laureate Louis Néel , and Fields Medallist René Thom , on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of matter waves . It

3450-423: The discipline; they are typically more important in the applied sciences . The value of publication as a preprint or scientific report on the web has in the past been low, but in some subjects, such as mathematics or high energy physics , it is now an accepted alternative. Scientific papers have been categorised into ten types. Eight of these carry specific objectives, while the other two can vary depending on

3525-457: The distribution of a physical product (e.g., paper books, paper magazines, or paper newspapers). Because the content is electronic, it may be distributed over the Internet and through electronic bookstores, and users can read the material on a range of electronic and digital devices, including desktop computers , laptops , tablet computers , smartphones or e-reader tablets. The consumer may read

3600-573: The e-reader and even smartphones. The digital book had, and still has, an important impact on publishing houses and their economical models; it is still a moving domain, and they yet have to master the new ways of publishing in a digital era. Based on new communications practices of the web 2.0 and the new architecture of participation, online edition opens the door to a collaboration of a community to elaborate and improve contents on Internet, while also enriching reading through collective reading practices. The web 2.0 not only links documents together, as did

3675-448: The electronic materials uploaded to preprint repositories are still intended for eventual publication in a peer-reviewed journal. There is statistical evidence that electronic publishing provides wider dissemination, because when a journal is available online, a larger number of researchers can access the journal. Even if a professor is working in a university that does not have a certain journal in its library, she may still be able to access

3750-525: The former Benedictine priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs , which church and core architectural style was inspired by the Basilica of Saint-Denis architecture built a few years earlier. This large Cluniac monastery founded by King Henry the First of France in 1059–1060 on Merovingian vestige, is still visible today. The former gothic -style refectory hall dated from the 13th century remains until today and

3825-580: The founding editor of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Henry Oldenburg . Technical and scientific books were a specialty of David Van Nostrand , and his Engineering Magazine re-published contemporary scientific articles. Conservatoire national des arts et m%C3%A9tiers The Conservatoire national des arts et métiers ( French pronunciation: [kɔ̃sɛʁvatwaʁ nasjɔnal dez‿aʁ e metje] , lit.   ' National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts ' ; abbr. CNAM )

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3900-698: The highest levels of French society. Similar to Ivy League schools in the United States, Oxbridge in the UK, and C9 League in China, graduation from a grande école is considered the prerequisite credential for any top government, administrative and corporate position in France. The degrees are accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles and bestowed upon by the Ministry of National Education (France) . Higher education business and engineering degrees in France are organised into three levels thus facilitating international mobility:

3975-411: The journal online. A number of journals have, while retaining their longstanding peer review process to ensure that the research is done properly, established electronic versions or even moved entirely to electronic publication. In the early 2000s, many of the existing copyright laws were designed around printed books, magazines and newspapers. For example, copyright laws often set limits on how much of

4050-412: The look of content, and metadata (data about data) to describe the content for search engines , thus helping users to find and locate the content (a common example of metadata is the information about a song's songwriter, composer, genre that is electronically encoded along with most CDs and digital audio files ; this metadata makes it easier for music lovers to find the songs they are looking for). With

4125-449: The need for permission. Usually an author or authors circumvent that problem by rewriting an article and using other pictures. Some publishers may also want publicity for their journal so will approve facsimile reproduction unconditionally; other publishers are more resistant. In scientific publishing, a number of key issues include and are not restricted to: The first recorded editorial pre-publication peer-review occurred in 1665 by

4200-635: The pendulum being moved back to the Panthéon during the museum reconstruction. On 25 November 1819, at the instigation of Duke Decazes , newly nominated as Minister of the Interior , a three-Chairs higher education is established at the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts: Applied Mechanical Engineering vested in Baron Charles Dupin ; Applied Chemistry entrusted to Nicolas Clément ; and Industrial Economics left with Jean Baptiste Say . The French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts

4275-562: The printing set-ups for paper books, have changed. Designers of digitally published content must have a strong knowledge of mark-up languages, the variety of reading devices and computers available, and the ways in which consumers read, view or access the content. However, in the 2010s, new user friendly design software is becoming available for designers to publish content in this standard without needing to know detailed programming techniques, such as Adobe Systems ' Digital Publishing Suite and Apple's iBooks Author . The most common file format

4350-584: The project aspired to constitute a digital and multilingual library that would be a complement to the Misplaced Pages project. It was originally named "Project Sourceberg", as a word play to remind the Project Gutenberg. Supported by the Wikimedia Foundation , Wikisource proposes digitized texts that have been verified by volunteers. In December 2004, Google created Google Books , a project to digitize all

4425-480: The project moved quickly forward. Many more volunteers helped in developing the project by giving access to public domain classics. In the 1970s, the French National Centre for Scientific Research digitized a thousand books from diverse subjects, mostly literature but also philosophy and science, dating back to the 12th century to present times. In this way were built the foundations of a large dictionary,

4500-531: The published content online on a website, in an application on a tablet device, or in a PDF document on a computer. In some cases, the reader may print the content onto paper using a consumer-grade ink-jet or laser printer or via a print-on-demand system. Some users download digital content to their devices, enabling them to read the content even when their device is not connected to the Internet (e.g., on an airplane flight). Distributing content electronically as software applications ("apps") has become popular in

4575-563: The regional CNAM centres budget is allocated by the French regional councils . A student should apply through the nearest French regional CNAM in terms of enrolment, in other words, someone living in Marseille should enrol in Marseille's regional center (PACA) and not in Paris, even if his/her desired curriculum is not available in Marseille. As the vast majority of continuing education curricula are taught online, continuing education students can most of

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4650-593: The resulting works are more accessible, since they are published online. At the same time, the availability of published material online opens more doors for plagiarism , unauthorized use, or re-use of the material. Some publishers are trying to address these concerns. For example, in 2011, HarperCollins limited the number of times that one of its e-books could be lent in a public library . Other publishers, such as Penguin , are attempting to incorporate e-book elements into their regular paper publications. Scientific publishing Scientific literature encompasses

4725-516: The results of published studies to underscore progress and new research directions, as well as books that tackle extensive projects or comprehensive arguments, including article compilations. Tertiary sources encompass encyclopedias and similar works designed for widespread public consumption. Scientific literature can include the following kinds of publications: Literature may also be published in areas considered to be " grey ", as they are published outside of traditional channels. This material

4800-432: The style and the intended goal. Papers that carry specific objectives are: The following two categories are variable, including for example historical articles and speeches: The actual day-to-day records of scientific information are kept in research notebooks or logbooks. These are usually kept indefinitely as the basic evidence of the work, and are often kept in duplicate, signed, notarized, and archived. The purpose

4875-454: The supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education and as French public institution of higher education, it is assigned three missions: These missions and values are reflected in CNAM's motto: "Omnes docet ubique" , which means: "Teaching to everyone everywhere." Out of the 70,000 students enrolled at CNAM (57.7% employees, 24% job seekers, 12% students, 6.3% self-employed), 36% are enrolled at

4950-443: The three largest textbook suppliers in the U.S. Electronic publishing is increasingly popular in works of fiction. Electronic publishers are able to respond quickly to changing market demand, because the companies do not have to order printed books and have them delivered. E-publishing is also making a wider range of books available, including books that customers would not find in standard book retailers, due to insufficient demand for

5025-587: The time attend them via their nearest CNAM regional centre. Shall some specific classes be available only in Paris or at another regionalc centre, the student can attend these courses on-site, shall it be required (for example laboratory sessions in Life Science, Physics or Chemistry). Regional centres providing Engineering diploma via the EiCNAM, the Grande Ecole Engineer School of CNAM are all certified by

5100-468: The time needed for digitization decreased considerably, and digital libraries were on the rise. All over the world, e-libraries started to emerge. The ABU ( Association des Bibliophiles Universels) , was a public digital library project created by the Cnam in 1993. It was the first French digital library in the network; suspended since 2002, they reproduced over a hundred texts that are still available. In 1992,

5175-419: The use of tags, style sheets, and metadata, this enables "reflowable" content that adapts to various reading devices (tablet, smartphone, e-reader, etc.) or electronic delivery methods. Because electronic publishing often requires text mark-up (e.g., HyperText Markup Language or some other markup language) to develop online delivery methods, the traditional roles of typesetters and book designers, who created

5250-422: The wake of the French Revolution . Headquartered in Paris, it has campuses in every major French cities , in overseas France and in every francophone African country , China, Haiti, Germany, and Switzerland. Founded in 1794 by the French bishop Henri Grégoire , CNAM's core mission is dedicated to provide education and conduct research for the promotion of science and industry. With 70,000 students and

5325-530: The web 1.0, it also links people together through social media: that's why it's called the Participative (or participatory) Web . Many tools were put in place to foster sharing and creative collective contents. One of the many is the Misplaced Pages encyclopedia, since it is edited, corrected and enhanced by millions of contributors. OpenStreetMap is also based on the same principle. Blogs and comment systems are also now renown as online edition and publishing, since it

5400-633: Was developing quickly, combining book, audiovisual and computer science characteristics. CDs and DVDs appear, permitting the visualization of these dictionaries and encyclopedias on computers. The arrival and democratization of Internet is slowly giving small publishing houses the opportunity to publish their books directly online. Some websites, like Amazon , let their users buy eBooks ; Internet users can also find many educative platforms (free or not), encyclopedic websites like Misplaced Pages , and even digital magazines platforms. The eBook then becomes more and more accessible through many different supports, like

5475-514: Was in 1971 by Michael S. Hart , a student at the University of Illinois at Chicago , who launched Project Gutenberg , designed to make literature more accessible to everyone, through the internet. It took a while to develop, and in 1989 there were only 10 texts that were manually recopied on computer by Michael S. Hart himself and some volunteers. But with the appearance of the Web 1.0 in 1991 and its ability to connect documents together through static pages,

5550-476: Was one of the founding Schools of the Grande Ecole System in the wake of the French Revolution . Grande Ecoles are separate from, but parallel and often connected to, the main framework of the French public university system . Grandes écoles , like CNAM, are elite academic institutions which enroll students via an extremely competitive process, and a significant proportion of their graduates occupy

5625-412: Was reassigned as the library in the middle of the 19th century by the CNAM's architect: Léon Vaudoyer . CNAM is based in 160 other French cities. French regional CNAM Centres are financially independent but pedagogically linked to the CNAM public institution based in Paris (namely of enrolment, selection and evaluation of candidates), and their existence is governed by a specific ministry decree. Half of

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