109-598: Traditional Ekasarana Dharma ( lit. ' Shelter-in-One religion ' ) is a neo-Vaishnavite religion propagated by Srimanta Sankardeva in the 15th-16th century in the Indian state of Assam . It reduced focus on Vedic ritualism and focuses on devotion ( bhakti ) to Krishna in the form of congregational listening ( shravan ) and singing his name and deeds ( kirtan ). The simple and accessible religion attracted both Hindu and non-Hindu populations into its egalitarian fold. The neophytes continue to be inducted into
218-727: A Padma (lotus), Kaumodaki gada (mace), Panchajanya shankha (conch), and Sudarshana chakra (discus). As stated in the epic Itihāsa , the Mahabharata : I am Narayana, the Source of all things, the Eternal, the Unchangeable. I am the Creator of all things, and the Destroyer also of all. I am Vishnu , I am Brahma and I am Shankara , the chief of the gods. I am king Vaisravana, and I am Yama,
327-601: A serpent in the sea. He quotes, "This Nārāyana of the Āryan pantheon seems to be the supreme being of the Mohenjo-Darians, a god who was probably styled Ān, a name still kept in Tamil literature as Āndivanam, the prototype of the historic Siva ". In the Vedas and the Puranas , Narayana is described as having the divine blackish-blue color of water-filled clouds, four-armed, holding
436-504: A Vaishnava Upanishad The charity or gift is the armour in the world, All beings live on the gift of the other, Through gifts strangers become friends, Through gifts, they ward off difficulties, On gifts and giving, everything rests, That is why charity is the highest. — Mahanarayana Upanishad 63.6 Along with the reverence and exegetical analysis of the ancient Principal Upanishads , Vaishnava-inspired scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focussed Upanishads that are called
545-483: A form of Vishnu. The legend goes that King Vibhishana , who was carrying the idol of Ranganatha on his way to Lanka , took rest for a while by placing the statue on the ground. When he prepared to depart, he realised that the idol was stuck to the ground. So, he built a small shrine, which became a popular abode for the deity Ranganatha on the banks of the river Kaveri. The entire temple campus with great walls, towards, mandapas, halls with 1000 pillars were constructed over
654-607: A northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa Narayana. Purusa Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna. In the late-Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical Brahman grows in prominence, and the Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively. This complex history
763-566: A part of the wider, pan-Indian Bhakti movement, it does not worship Radha with Krishna, which is common in many other Vaishnava schools. It is characterised by the dasya form of worship. Historically, it has been against caste system, and especially against animal sacrifices common in other sects of Hinduism, especially Shaktism . Noted for its egalitarianism , it posed a serious challenge to Brahminical Hinduism, and converted into its fold people of all castes, ethnicity and religion (including Islam ). The preceptors as well as later leaders of
872-619: A period of 300 years from the 14th to 17th century CE. Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas . But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism,
981-453: A special place in this religion: Kirtan Ghoxa , composed by Sankardev; and Naam Ghoxa and Ratnavali , composed by Madhavdev. The religion fissured into four sanghati ( samhatis or sub-sects) soon after the death of Srimanta Sankardeva. Sankardev handed down the leadership to Madhabdev , but the followers of Damodardev and Harideva did not accept Madhabdev as their leader and formed their own group ( Brahma sanghati ). Madhabdeva at
1090-583: Is Bhagavat of Sankardeva , which was rendered from the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana by Srimanta Sankardeva and other early members of the Eka Sarana school. This book is supplemented by the two books of songs for congregational singing: Kirtan Ghoxa by Sankardeva and Naam Ghoxa by Madhabdev . These books are written in the Assamese language. The sect is also called Mahapuruxiya because it
1199-587: Is Nārāyana, the Supreme Reality or Parama Brahma and not merely an avatara of Visnu. Krishna is God Himself. It considers Narayana (Krishna) as both the cause as well as the effect of this creation, and asserts Narayana alone is the sole reality. From the philosophical angle, He is the Supreme Spirit (Param-Brahma). As the controller of the senses, the Yogis call him Paramatma. When connected with this world, He assumes
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#17328518870761308-523: Is Nārāyaṇī. He is said to have been born from Avalokiteśvara 's heart. The Buddhas are sometimes described as having a firm body like Nārāyaṇa. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra describes him as having three faces with a greenish-yellow complexion. He holds a wheel in his right hand and rides upon a garuḍa . Chapter 6 of the Yiqiejing Yinyi explains that he belongs to the Kāmadhātu and is veneration for
1417-531: Is a friendly duel between cousin brothers Neminatha (Tirthankara) and Krishna (Naryana) in which Neminath lost to Krishna without any effort at all. There is also a story of Neminatha lifting the conch of Krishna and blowing it without any effort. The Jain Mahabharata describes Krishna's conflict with Jarasandha , who he kills. Narayana is hailed in certain parts of the Vedas like the Narayana Suktam and
1526-539: Is a monotheistic tradition wherein Vishnu (Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. In contrast, Sri Vaishnavism sampradaya associated with Ramanuja has monotheistic elements, but differs in several ways, such as goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are considered as inseparable equal divinities. According to some scholars, Sri Vaishnavism emphasizes panentheism, and not monotheism, with its theology of "transcendence and immanence", where God interpenetrates everything in
1635-863: Is accepted as a teacher whose teachings are in the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana . Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the Vedas as the scriptural authority. All traditions within Vaishnavism consider the Brahmanas , the Aranyakas and the Upanishads embedded within the four Vedas as Sruti , while Smritis, which include all the epics, the Puranas and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, are considered as "exegetical or expository literature" of
1744-532: Is acknowledged as the supreme goddess, for it is said that she controls Krishna with her love. It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all. Radha and Krishna are avatars of Lakshmi and Vishnu respectively. In the region of India called Braj, Radha and Krishna are worshipped together, and their separation cannot even be conceived. And, some communities ascribe more devotional significance to Radha. While there are much earlier references to
1853-485: Is also synonymous with Narayana and Arjuna is referred to as Nara. The epic identifies them both in plural 'Krishnas', or as part incarnations of the earlier incarnations of Vishnu , recalling their mystical identity as Nara-Narayana . Narayana (as Krishna) is also described in the Bhagavad Gita as having a universal form ( Vishvarupa ) which is beyond the ordinary limits of human perception or imagination. In
1962-566: Is an Avatar , rather than a transcended Supreme Being. Vishnuism believes in Vishnu as the supreme being. When all other Vaishnavas recognise Krishna as one of Vishnu's avatars , though only the Krishnites identify the Supreme Being ( Svayam Bhagavan , Brahman , a source of the Trimurti) with Krishna and his forms ( Radha Krishna , Vithoba and others), those manifested themselves as Vishnu. This
2071-634: Is based on the worship of the Mahapurux or Mahapurush (Sanskrit: Maha : great and purusha: being), an epithet of the supreme spiritual personality in the Bhagavata and its adherents are often called Mahapuruxia , Sankari etc. In course of time, the epithet 'Mahapurux' came also to be secondarily applied to Sankardeva and Madhabdev, the principal preceptors. Non-adherence to the Hindu varna system and rejection of Vedic karma marked its character. Though often seen as
2180-496: Is believed that God appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires. These forms include the different avataras of Krishna described in traditional Vaishnava texts, but they are not limited to these. Indeed, it is said that the different expansions of the Svayam bhagavan are uncountable and they cannot be fully described in the finite scriptures of any one religious community. Many of
2289-465: Is called Nika (clean) because it developed strict codes for purity and cleanliness in religious matters as well as in general living, as laid down by Madhabdeva. Idol worship is strictly prohibited and it gives special importance to Madhavdev. The Kala sanghati , initiated by Gopal Ata (Gopalldev of Bhavanipur) and named after the place of his headquarters Kaljar, placed its emphasis on Guru . The sattariya of this sanghati came to be considered as
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#17328518870762398-479: Is centred on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to Schweig, it is a "polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognises many forms ( ananta rupa ) of the one, single unitary divinity," since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms. Okita, in contrast, states that the different denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as theism, pantheism and panentheism . The Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya
2507-679: Is conceived as the Supreme Soul in the texts. The Mahāsamaya Sutta (DN 20) of the Pali Canon mentions a deity by the name Veṇhu (Sanskrit: Viṣṇu ), though the text suggests that this name may also signify a class of deva. He also appears in the Veṇḍu Sutta (SN 2.12) as Veṇḍu where he addresses Gautama Buddha by celebrating the joy experienced by those who follow the Dhamma . He also makes brief mention of Manu . Mahayana Buddhism elaborates on
2616-515: Is in the form of Krishna that Narayana is usually worshiped. The description of Krishna is based on the one in Bhagavat Puran, as one who resides in Vaikuntha along with his devotees. Thus the worshipful form is different from other forms of Krishna-based religions (Radha-Krishna of Caitanya, Gopi-Krishna of Vallabhacharya, Rukmini-Krishna of Namadeva and Sita-Rama of Ramananda). The form of devotion
2725-580: Is infused with the dasya and balya bhava in the works of Sankardev and Madhabdev. Madhura bhava , so prevalent in the other religions, is singularly absent here. The cari vastu or the Four Principles defined this religious system are: Sankardev defined the first, second and fourth of these, whereas Madhavdev introduced the third while at Belaguri when he accepted Sankardev as the guru for himself and for all others who accepted his faith. The four principles are revealed and their meaning explained at
2834-416: Is its difference from such groups as Ramaism , Radhaism , Sitaism, etc. As such Krishnaism is believed to be one of the early attempts to make philosophical Hinduism appealing to the masses. In common language the term Krishnaism is not often used, as many prefer a wider term "Vaishnavism", which appeared to relate to Vishnu, more specifically as Vishnu-ism. In Vishnu-centered sects, Vishnu or Narayana
2943-553: Is known for the loving devotion to an avatar of Vishnu (often Krishna), and as such was key to the spread of the Bhakti movement in Indian subcontinent in the 2nd millennium CE. It has four Vedanta -schools of numerous denominations ( sampradaya ): the medieval-era Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja , the Dvaita school of Madhvacharya , the Dvaitadvaita school of Nimbarkacharya , and
3052-439: Is often described as having the appearance of a dark-skinned person and is depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a flute or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the Bhagavad Gita . Krishna is also worshiped across many other traditions of Hinduism. Krishna and the stories associated with him appear across a broad spectrum of different Hindu philosophical and theological traditions, where it
3161-526: Is reflected in the two main historical denominations of Vishnavism. The Bhagavats , worship Vāsudeva-Krishna, and are followers of Brahmanic Vaishnavism, while the Pacaratrins regard Narayana as their founder, and are followers of Tantric Vaishnavism. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar states that the lifetime of the Vaishnava Alvars was during the first half of the 12th century, their works flourishing about
3270-532: Is the act of creation, by which Narayana created everything. Unlike in Gaudiya Vaishnavism it claims no distinction between Brahman, Paramatman and Bhagavat, which are considered in Ekasarana as just different appellations applied to the same supreme reality. Even though Narayana is sometimes used synonymously with Vishnu, the gods Vishnu , Brahma and Shiva are considered of lower divinity. Narayana as
3379-640: Is the one supreme God. The belief in the supremacy of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in the Puranic texts, which differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha , Surya , or Durga . To the devotees of the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya , "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the foundation of all existence." Lakshmi, his consort, is described to act as the mediatrix between Vishnu and his devotees, intervening to offer her grace and forgiveness. According to Vedanta Desika ,
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3488-580: Is unclear, and broadly hypothesized as a fusion of various regional non-Vedic religions with worship of Vishnu . It is considered a merger of several popular non-Vedic theistic traditions, particularly the Bhagavata cults of Vāsudeva-Krishna and Gopala-Krishna , as well as Narayana , developed in the 7th to 4th century BCE. It was integrated with the Vedic God Vishnu in the early centuries CE, and finalized as Vaishnavism, when it developed
3597-472: Is unclear, the evidence inconsistent and scanty. Syncretism of various traditions resulted in Vaishnavism. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra, and other Vedic deities, thereby suggesting that he had a minor position in the Vedic religion. According to Dandekar , what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in Vedism at all, but emerged from
3706-677: The Cilappatikaram present Krishna, his brother , and favourite female companions in the similar terms. Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the bhakti of the Tamil alvars . Devotion to the southern Indian Mal ( Perumal ) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu. The Alvars , whose name can be translated "immersed", were devotees of Perumal. They codified
3815-457: The Narayana Sukta , Narayana is essentially the supreme force and/or essence of all: 'Nārāyaṇa parabrahman tatvam Nārāyaṇa paraha'. Narayana's eternal and supreme abode beyond the material universe is Vaikuntha , a realm of bliss and happiness called Paramapada , which means the final or highest place for liberated souls, where they enjoy bliss and happiness for eternity in the company of
3924-520: The Sutras that describe the life of Gautama Buddha . It is said that The Buddha "is endowed with the great strength of Nārāyaṇa, he is called the great Nārāyaṇa himself." The Chinese Manichaean manuscript Moni Guangfo , a syncretic religious text incorporating both Buddhist and Manichaean elements, considers Narayana ( Chinese : 那羅延 ; pinyin : Naluoyan ) to be one of the Five Buddhas, with
4033-464: The Tiruvaymoli was and is significant to his Sri Vaishnava adherents, as it became a model prayer for future generations. In this prayer, Ramanuja describes Narayana to be the "beloved consort of Sri and of Bhumi and Nila ". He is stated to reside in his abode of Vaikuntha, where he assumes the role of the creation, preservation, as well as the destruction of the universe. Narayana is extolled to be
4142-672: The Vishnu Purana , Bhagavata Purana , Garuda Purana , and the Padma Purana , Narayana is Vishnu himself, who incarnates in various avatars . According to the Bhagavad Gita , he is also the "Guru of the Universe". The Bhagavata Purana declares Narayana as the Supreme Personality of Godhead , who engages in the creation of 14 worlds within the universe Brahma who is Deity of rajas - guna , himself sustains, maintains and preserves
4251-620: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , Chandogya Upanishad , Katha Upanishad , Isha Upanishad , Mundaka Upanishad , Taittiriya Upanishad and others. In some cases, they cite fragments from the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Rigveda and the Yajurveda . Narayana Narayana ( Sanskrit : नारायण , IAST : Nārāyaṇa ) is one of the forms and epithets of Vishnu . In this form,
4360-586: The Dravidian , and ultimately, the Indus Valley Civilisation , prior to his syncretism with Vishnu. To this end, he states that the etymology of the deity is associated with the Dravidian nara , meaning ‘water’, ay , which in Tamil means "to lie in a place", and an , which is the masculine termination in Dravidian languages . He asserts that this is also the reason why Narayana is represented as lying on
4469-480: The Hindu scriptures sometimes differ in details reflecting the concerns of a particular tradition, while some core features of the view on Krishna are shared by all. Radha Krishna is the combination of both the feminine as well as the masculine aspects of God. Krishna is often referred as Svayam bhagavan in Gaudiya Vaishnavism theology and Radha is Krishna's internal potency and supreme beloved. With Krishna, Radha
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4578-525: The Pancharatras , a sectarian text that was accepted as authoritative by both the Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita schools of Vedanta . They are mechanisms by which the universe is ordered, was created, and evolves. Narayana possesses the chatur-vyuha aspects of Vasudeva, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, who evolve one after the other in the development of the universe. In the Mahabharata , Krishna
4687-564: The Paripatal , which contains seven poems in praise of Vishnu, including references to Krishna and Balarama. Aiyangar references an invasion of the south by the Mauryas in some of the older poems of the Sangam, and indicated that the opposition that was set up and maintained persistently against northern conquest had possibly in it an element of religion, the south standing up for orthodox Brahmanism against
4796-570: The Shuddhadvaita of Vallabhacharya . There are also several other Vishnu-traditions. Ramananda (14th century) created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas , the Upanishads , the Bhagavad Gita , the Pancharatra (Agama) texts, Naalayira Divya Prabhandham , and the Bhagavata Purana . The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism
4905-531: The Smritis and Puranas for the daily life of a Hindu, and also the worship of various deities like the sun, the moon, the grahas or planets, enjoined by the priestly Brahmin class for the sake of emoluments and gain. It enjoined the worship of no other deities except Narayana of the Upanishads , who was deemed the primal cause of srsti (creation), sthiti (existence) and pralaya (destruction). The accompanying philosophies of Advaita and Vishishtadvaita brought
5014-588: The Vishnu Suktam . He is also hailed in selective Vaishnava Upanishads like the Narayana Upanishad , Mahanarayana Upanishad , and the Nrisimha Tapaniya Upanishad . The Padma Purana relates an episode where Narayana grants Rudra (Shiva) a boon. The destroyer deity seeks two boons. Firstly, he wishes to be the greatest of the devotees of Narayana, as well as bearing the reputation of
5123-546: The Vrishni heroes , which was then amalgamated with Krishna , hero of the Yadavas , and still several centuries later with the "divine child" Bala Krishna of the Gopala traditions. According to Klostermaier, "In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion." According to Dalal, "The term Bhagavata seems to have developed from the concept of
5232-428: The avatar doctrine, wherein the various non-Vedic deities are revered as distinct incarnations of the supreme God Vishnu . Narayana , Hari , Rama , Krishna , Kalki , Perumal , Shrinathji , Vithoba , Venkateswara , Guruvayurappan , Ranganatha , Jagannath , Badrinath and Muktinath are among the names of popular avatars all seen as different aspects of the same supreme being. The Vaishnavite tradition
5341-443: The sattra institution. Institutions propagating Eka Sarana like sattra (monasteries) and village Namghar (prayer houses), had profound influence in the evolution of the social makeup of Assam. The artistic creations emanating from this movement led to engendering of new forms of literature, music ( Borgeets or songs celestial), theatre ( Ankia Naat ) and dance ( Sattriya dance ). The central religious text of this sect
5450-435: The 10th century started to employ Vedanta-arguments, possibly continuing an older tradition of Vishnu-oriented Vedanta predating Advaita Vedanta . Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya and Ramanuja, contested Adi Shankaras Advaita interpretations and proposed Vishnu bhakti ideas instead. Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly Shaivite Tamil Nadu during the seventh to tenth centuries CE with
5559-598: The 12th century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana , poetic works, as well as many scholarly bhasyas and samhitas . This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence of scholars such as Ramanujacharya , Vedanta Desika , Madhvacharya and Vallabhacharya . Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala Mamunigal , Namdev , Ramananda , Sankardev , Surdas , Tulsidas , Eknath , Tyagaraja , Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced
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#17328518870765668-470: The 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century. Historically, it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi . During the 20th century, Vaishnavism spread from India and is now practised in many places around the globe, including North America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. A pioneer of Vaishnavite mission to
5777-658: The Ekasarana religion focused mainly on the religious practice of bhakti and kept away from systematically expounding philosophical positions. Nevertheless, references found scattered in the voluminous works of Sankardeva and Madhavdeva indicate that their theosophical positions are rooted in the Bhagavata Purana with a strong Advaita influence via its commentary Bhavartha-dipika by Sridhar Swami. Nevertheless, Sankardeva's interpretation of these texts were seen at once to be "original and new". Scholars hold that these texts are not followed in-toto and deviations are often seen in
5886-406: The Gupta age, Krishnaism rose to a major current of Vaishnavism, and Vaishnavism developed into various sects and subsects, most of them emphasizing bhakti , which was strongly influenced by south Indian religiosity. Modern scholarship posit Nimbarkacharya (c.7th century CE) to this period who propounded Radha Krishna worship and his doctrine came to be known as (dvaita-advaita). Vaishnavism in
5995-497: The One Supreme form of God and source of all avatars, Svayam Bhagavan . Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest Krishnite movement was Bhagavatism with Krishna- Vasudeva (about 2nd century BCE) —after the Bhagavata Purana which asserts that Krishna is "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: Vishnu , Narayana , Purusha , Ishvara , Hari , Vasudeva , Janardana etc. Krishna
6104-439: The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas are the scriptural sources of Vaishnavism. The Bhagavata Purana is a revered and widely celebrated text, parts of which, a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall, include as a scripture. Other important texts in the tradition include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by various sampradayas (denominations within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava traditions, Krishna
6213-426: The Vaishnava Upanishads. These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature. The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era. All of the Vaishnava Upanishads either directly reference and quote from the ancient Principal Upanishads or incorporate some ideas found in them; most cited texts include
6322-568: The Vaishnava canon of the south with their most significant liturgy, the Naalayira Divya Prabandham , traced to the 10th century as a compilation by Nathamuni. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the avatars . Yet, according to Hardy, the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon. The early Alvars speak of glorifying Vishnu bhakti (devotion to Vishnu), but at
6431-440: The Vedic deity Bhaga , and initially it seems to have been a monotheistic sect, independent of the Brahmanical pantheon." The development of the Krishna-traditions was followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment. The Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became
6540-576: The Vedic texts. The Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy , which interpreted the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutra , provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism. Due to the ancient and archaic language of the Vedic texts, interpretations varied among different schools, leading to differences between the denominations (sampradayas) of Vaishnavism. These interpretations have created different traditions within Vaishnavism, from dualistic ( Dvaita ) Vedanta of Madhvacharya , to nondualistic ( Advaita ) Vedanta of Madhusudana Sarasvati . Axiology in
6649-436: The West was sannyasi Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), the author of the first full-length treatment of Bengali Vaishnavism in English, Sree Krishna—the Lord of Love . He founded the "Krishna Samaj" society in New York City in 1902 and a temple in Los Angeles . The global status of Vaishnavism is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, founded by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966. Vaishnavism
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#17328518870766758-403: The Yadavas", to form the merged deity Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna , due to the close relation between the tribes of the Vrishnis and the Yadavas. This was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krishna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras in the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic. According to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated
6867-409: The acquisition of power. Chapter 41 adds that he has eight arms that wield various "Dharma weapons" ( dharmayuda ) with which he subjugates the asuras . He appears as an interlocutor in several Mahayana sutras , including the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra , Sarvapuṇyasamuccayasamādhi Sūtra and the Nārāyaṇaparipṛcchā Dhāraṇī . He is also mentioned in several places in the Lalitavistara Sūtra , one of
6976-478: The balance in the universe. These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva, Rama and Krishna; each the name of a divine figure with attributed supremacy, which each associated tradition of Vaishnavism believes to be distinct. The term "Krishnaism" ( Kṛṣṇaism ) has been used to describe a large group of independent traditions- sampradayas within Vaishnavism regarded Krishna as the Supreme God, while "Vishnuism" may be used for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna
7085-459: The cardinal points are my body, and the Air is my mind... ...And, O Brahmana, whatever is obtained by men by the practice of truth, charity, ascetic austerities, and peace and harmlessness towards all creatures, and such other handsome deeds, is obtained because of my arrangements. Governed by my ordinance, men wander within my body, their senses overwhelmed by me. They move not according to their will but as they are moved by me. As per texts like
7194-423: The character of this deity, where is often called Nārāyaṇa ( Chinese : 那羅延天 ; Tibetan : མཐུ་བོ་ཆེ། ) or more rarely, Narasiṃha ( 納拉辛哈 ) and Vāsudeva ( 婆藪天 ). Literature often depicts him as a Vajradhara ( 金剛力士 ). He is present in the Womb Realm Mandala and is among the twelve guardian devas of the Diamond Realm Mandala . He is associated with Śrāvaṇa in esoteric astrology. His queen consort
7303-440: The cosmic balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil. The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are Krishna , Rama , Narayana and Vasudeva . These names have extensive literature associated with them; each has its own characteristics, legends, and associated arts. The Mahabharata , for example, includes Krishna, while the Ramayana includes Rama. The Vedas,
7412-472: The deity is depicted in yogic slumber under the celestial waters , symbolising the masculine principle and associated with his role of creation. He is also known as Purushottama , and is considered the Supreme Being in Vaishnavism . Narayan Aiyangar states the meaning of the Sanskrit word 'Narayana' can be traced back to the Laws of Manu (also known as the Manusmriti , a Dharmaśāstra text), which states: The waters are called narah, (for)
7521-414: The encroachment of Buddhism by the persuasive eloquence and persistent effort of the Buddhist emperor Ashoka . The Tamil literature of this period has references scattered all over to the colonies of Brahmans brought and settled down in the south, and the whole output of this archaic literature exhibits unmistakably considerable Brahman influence in the making up of that literature. The Vaishnava school of
7630-483: The equivalent of the Supreme God. The appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita —initially, a Krishnaite scripture, according to Friedhelm Hardy —was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism. Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari,
7739-402: The existence of other gods, it asserts that Narayana alone is worshipful and the others are strictly excluded. Following the Bhagavata Purana , the object of devotion in Ekasarana is Krishna , who is the supreme entity himself. All other deities are subservient to Him. Brahman, Vishnu and Krishna are fundamentally one. Krishna is alone the supreme worshipful in the system. Sankaradeva's Krishna
7848-490: The expansion of Vaishnavism. Even Mirabai took part in this specific movement. These scholars rejected Shankara 's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly Ramanuja in the 12th century, and Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th century, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the Alvars ( Sri Vaishnavas ). In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements Ramananda in
7957-518: The faith in Karnataka. The Chalukyas and their rivals of the Pallavas appear to have employed Vaishnavism as an assertion of divine kingship, one of them proclaiming themselves as terrestrial emanations of Vishnu while the other promptly adopted Shaivism as their favoured tradition, neither of them offering much importance to the other's deity. The Sri Vaishnava sampradaya of Ramanuja would hold sway in
8066-490: The faith via an initiation ceremony called xoron-lowa (literally: take-shelter), usually conducted by Sattradhikars , heads of monastic institutions called Sattras , who generally draw apostolic lineage from Sankardev. Some Sattradhikars, especially those from the Brahma-sanghati, reject apostolic lineage from Sankardev due to an early schism with the order. Some modern reformation institutions conduct xoron-lowa outside
8175-508: The followers of this sect were responsible for the Moamoria rebellion against the Ahom royalty . Vaishnavism#Later medieval period Traditional Vaishnavism ( Sanskrit : वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः , romanized : Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism , Shaktism , and Smartism . It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as
8284-424: The individual self, mind, and egoism." Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept of avatar (incarnation) around Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer. His avataras, asserts Vaishnavism, descend to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring dharma . This is reflected in the passages of the ancient Bhagavad Gita as: Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth. For
8393-521: The insurgent Buddhists and Jains. The Pallavas were also the first of various dynasties that offered land and wealth to the Venkatesvara temple at Tirumala, which would soon become the most revered religious site of South India. The Sri Vaishnava acharya Ramanuja is credited with the conversion of the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana (originally called Bittideva) from Jainism to Vaishnavism, consolidating
8502-530: The jiva is restored to its natural state ( maya is removed). Though other Vaishnavites (Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha, Caitanya) recognise only videhamukti ( mukti after death), the Ekasarana preceptors have recognised, in addition, jivanmukti ( mukti during lifetime). Among the five different kinds of videhamukti , the Ekasarana rejects the Sayujya form of mukti , where the complete absorption in God deprives jiva of
8611-577: The lord of the deceased spirits. I am Siva , I am Soma, and I am Kasyapa the lord of the created things. And, O best of regenerate ones, I am he called Dhatri, and he also that is called Vidhatri, and I am Sacrifice embodied. Fire is my mouth, the earth my feet, and the Sun and the Moon are my eyes; the Heaven is the crown of my head, the firmament and the cardinal points are my ears; the waters are born of my sweat. Space with
8720-513: The lower classes into the fold of practical Hinduism, and extended to them the right and privilege of knowing God and attaining mukti (salvation). The Pallava dynasty of Tamilakam patronised Vaishnavism. Mahendra Varman built shrines both of Vishnu and Shiva, several of his cave-temples exhibiting shrines to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In the age of the Pallava domination, which followed immediately, both Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished, fighting
8829-490: The merger of several popular theistic traditions which developed after the decline of Brahmanism at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the second urbanisation of northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE. It initially formed as Vasudevism around Vāsudeva , a deified leader of the Vrishnis , and one of the Vrishni heroes . Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated with Krishna "the deified tribal hero and religious leader of
8938-433: The name of Bhagavanta. Moreover, some of the characteristics usually reserved for the impersonal God in other philosophies are attributed to Narayana with reinterpretations. The embodied self, called jiva or jivatma is identical to Narayana. It is shrouded by maya and thus suffers from misery, When the ego ( ahamkara ) is destroyed, the jiva can perceive himself as Brahma. The jiva attains mukti (liberation) when
9047-639: The other buddhas being Zoroaster , Śākyamuni , Jesus , and Mani . Balabhadra and Narayana are mighty half-brothers, who appear nine times in each half of the time cycles of the Jain cosmology and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravarti. Ultimately Prati-naryana is killed by Narayana for his unrighteousness and immorality. Narayana are extremely powerful and are as powerful as 2 Balabhadras. Chakravartins are as powerful as 2 Narayanas. Hence Narayanas become half-chakravartins. Tirthankaras are much more powerful than Chakravartins. In Jain Mahabharata , there
9156-525: The other sanghatis are allowed in this sanghati . Brahmins too found this sanghati attractive and most of the Sattras of this sanghati have traditionally had Brahmin sattradhikars . Among the cari vastus , Deva is emphasised, worship of the images of the deva (Vishnu and the chief incarnations, Krishna and Rama) are allowed. Among the gurus Damodardev is paramount. Later on they came to call themselves Damodariya after Damodardev. The Purush sanghati
9265-470: The personal and worshipful god is considered to be a loving and lovable god, who possesses auspicious attributes that attract devotees. He is non-dual, omnipotent and omniscient; creator, sustainer, and destroyer of all. He also possesses moral qualities like karunamaya (compassionate), dinabandhu (friend of the lowly), bhakta-vatsala (beloved of devotees) and patit-pavana (redeemer of sinners) that make him attractive to devotees. Though it does not deny
9374-478: The physical embodiment of Deva , and the disciples of this sect are not allowed to pay obeisance to anyone else. This sect was successful in initiating many tribal and socially backward groups into the Mahapuruxia fold, and it had the largest following among the different sanghatis . The Dihing sattra, one of the large sattra's received royal patronage; but the largest sattra, Moamara, forged an independent path and
9483-471: The position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The "Greater Krsnaism", states Dandekar, then adopted the Rigvedic Vishnu as Supreme deity to increase its appeal towards orthodox elements. According to Klostermaier , Vaishnavism originates in the latest centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with the cult of the heroic Vāsudeva, a leading member of
9592-565: The protection of the good and for the destruction of evil, and for the establishment of righteousness, I come into being age after age. In Vaishnava theology, such as is presented in the Bhagavata Purana and the Pancaratra , whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore
9701-734: The religion it had been so ardently promoting. The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras , the Maukharis , the Maitrakas , the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Saivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva , and its ideology of power. Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir . After
9810-487: The same throughout the world. Secondly, he desires the ability to offer salvation to whoever seeks refuge in him. The prowess of Narayana is described in the Ramayana : Narayana, like unto a luminous cloud, with his excellent shafts loosed from His bow, as so many lightning strokes, exterminated those rangers of the night with their hair dishevelled and streaming in the wind. Their parasols broken, their rich apparel torn by
9919-453: The same time, they do regard Shiva bhakti (devotion to Shiva) with considerable sympathy, and make a visible effort to keep the Shaivas in countenance. The earliest Alvars go the length of describing Shiva and Vishnu as one, although they do recognise their united form as Vishnu. Srirangam , the site of the largest functioning temple in the world of 600 acres, is devoted to Ranganathaswamy ,
10028-487: The shafts, their entrails ripped open, their eyes wide with fear, those warriors, throwing away their arms, fell into a frenzy of terror. Resembling elephants attacked by a lion, those night-rangers with their mounts emitted cries whilst fleeing from that Primeval Lion [i.e., Vishnu’s incarnation as Nrsimha—half man, half lion], who pursued them. Ramanuja 's prayer of surrender to Narayana in the Sharanagati Gadyam of
10137-481: The sole supreme being leading all other Hindu deities , that is, Mahavishnu . Its followers are called Vaishnavites or Vaishnava s ( IAST : Vaiṣṇava ), and it includes sub-sects like Krishnaism and Ramaism , which consider Krishna and Rama as the supreme beings respectively. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect, constituting about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism
10246-484: The south based its teachings on the Naradiya Pancharatra and the Bhagavata from the north and laid stress on a life of purity, high morality, worship and devotion to only one God. Although the monism of Shankara was greatly appreciated by the intellectual class, the masses came increasingly within the fold of Vishnu. Vaishnavism checked the elaborate rituals, ceremonials, vratas, fasts, and feasts prescribed by
10355-838: The south, the Vadakalai denomination subscribing to Vedanta philosophy and the Tenkalai adhering to regional liturgies known as Prabandham. According to Hardy , there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism", despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions. South Indian texts show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, so ubiquitous in later North Indian text and imagery. Early writings in Tamils ' culture such as Manimekalai and
10464-743: The supreme divine couple Lakshmi Narayana pervades and transcends the entire universe, which is described to be their body. They are described to support all life, both material and spiritual. In this manner, Lakshmi is conceived to be the supreme mother and Narayana as the supreme father of creation. In the Krishnaism group of Vaishnavism traditions, such as the Nimbarka Sampradaya (the first Krishnaite Sampradaya developed by Nimbarka c. 7th century CE), Ekasarana Dharma , Gaudiya Vaishnavism , Mahanubhava , Rudra Sampradaya ( Pushtimarg ), Vaishnava-Sahajiya , and Warkari , devotees worship Krishna as
10573-459: The supreme lord. Vaikuntha is situated beyond the material universe and hence, cannot be perceived or measured by material science or logic. Sometimes, Kshira Sagara , where Narayana or Vishnu rests on Shesha in his reclining ananta shayana form, is also perceived as Vaikuntha within the material universe. The Śruti texts mention Narayana as the primordial being who was present even when Brahma and Ishana ( Shiva ) were not present. He
10682-414: The sweetness and bliss associated with bhakti . Bhakti is thus not a means to mukti but an end to itself, and this is strongly emphasised in Ekasarana writings—Madhavdeva begins his Namaghosha with an obeisance to devotees who do not prefer mukti . Narayana often manifests through avatars , and Krishna is considered as the most perfect one who is not a partial manifestation but Narayana himself. It
10791-625: The time of his death did not name a successor. After his death three leaders formed their own denominations: Bhabanipuria Gopal Ata ( Kaal sanghati ), Purushuttom Thakur Ata, a grandson of Sankardev ( Purusa sanghati ) and Mathuradas Burhagopal Ata ( Nika Sanghati ). They differ mostly in the emphasis of the cari vastus (four fundamental principles) The Brahma sanghati developed as a result of Damodardev and Haridev moving away from Sankardev's successor Madhabdev's leadership. Over time this sanghati brought back some elements of Brahminical orthodoxy. The vedic rituals which are generally prohibited in
10900-469: The time of initiation ( xonron-lowa ). The single most important religious text is the Bhagavata , especially the Book X ( Daxama ). This work was transcreated from the original Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana to Assamese in the 15th and 16th centuries by ten different individuals, but chiefly by Srimanta Sankardev who rendered as many as ten Cantos (complete and partial) of this holy text. Three other works find
11009-455: The time of the revival of Brahminism and Hinduism in the north, speculating that Vaishnavism might have penetrated to the south as early as about the first century CE. There also exists secular literature that ascribes the commencement of the tradition in the south to the 3rd century CE. U. V. Swaminathan Aiyar , a scholar of Tamil literature, published the ancient work of the Sangam period known as
11118-479: The twelve Alvars , saints who spread the sect to the common people with their devotional hymns . The temples that the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams . Their poems in praise of Vishnu and Krishna in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira Divya Prabandha (4000 divine verses). The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after
11227-650: The universe as Vishnu by accepting sattva - guna . Narayana himself annihilates the universe at the end of Maha-Kalpa as Kalagni Rudra who is presiding deity of tamas - guna . According to the Bhagavata Purana , Purusha Sukta , Narayana Sukta , and the Narayana Upanishad from the Vedas, he is the ultimate soul. According to Madhvacharya , Narayana is one of the five vyuhas of Vishnu , which are cosmic emanations of God, in contrast to his incarnate avatars . Madhvacharya separates Vishnu's manifestations into two groups: Vishnu's vyuhas (emanations) and His avataras (incarnations). The Vyuhas have their basis in
11336-529: The universe, and all of empirical reality is God's body. The Vaishnava sampradaya associated with Vallabhacharya is a form of pantheism, in contrast to the other Vaishnavism traditions. The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Chaitanya, states Schweig, is closer to a polymorphic bi-monotheism because both goddess Radha and god Krishna are simultaneously supreme. Vaishnavism precepts include the avatar (incarnation) doctrine, wherein Vishnu incarnates numerous times, in different forms, to set things right and bring back
11445-638: The verse describing this incident in Bhagavata Purana . It is also believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the gopis , or divine personalities that participate in the rasa dance. According to The Bhagavata Purana, there are twenty-two avatars of Vishnu, including Rama and Krishna . The Dashavatara is a later concept. The Pancaratrins follow the vyuha s doctrine, which says that God has four manifestations ( vyuha s), namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent "the Highest Self,
11554-407: The waters are, indeed, the offspring of Nara; as they were his first residence (ayana), he thence is named Narayana. This definition is used throughout post-Vedic literature such as the Mahabharata and the Vishnu Purana . 'Narayana' is also defined as the 'son of the primeval man ', and 'Supreme Being who is the foundation of all men'. L. B. Keny proposes that Narayana was associated with
11663-445: The worship of this form of God, it is since Jayadeva wrote the poem Gita Govinda in the twelfth century CE, that the topic of the spiritual love affair between the divine Krishna and his consort Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout India. It is believed that Krishna has left the "circle" of the rasa dance to search for Radha. The Chaitanya school believes that the name and identity of Radha are both revealed and concealed in
11772-532: The writings especially when the original philosophical contents came into conflict with the primary focus of bhakti as enunciated in the Ekasarana-dharma. Though Ekasarana acknowledges the impersonal ( nirguna ) god, it identifies the personal ( saguna ) one as worshipful which it identifies in the Bhagavad-Puranic Narayana . The sole aspect that distinguishes the personal from the impersonal one
11881-425: Was initiated by the grandsons of Sankardeva—Purushottam Thakur and Chaturbhuj Thakur—after the death of Madhavdev. The emphasis is on Naam . Sankardeva has a special position among the hierarchy of Gurus . Some Brahminical rites as well as the worship of images is tolerated to some extent. This sanghati was initiated by Badala Padma Ata , Mathuradas and Kesava Ata. The emphasis is on sat-sanga . This sanghati
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