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61-475: The Edward Medal was a British civilian decoration which was instituted by royal warrant on 13 July 1907 to recognise acts of bravery of miners and quarrymen in endangering their lives to rescue their fellow workers. The medal was named in honour of King Edward VII . The original royal warrant was amended by a further royal warrant on 1 December 1909 to encompass acts of bravery by all industrial workers in factory accidents and disasters, creating two versions of

122-470: A "general warrant" to enforce its laws. These warrants were broad in nature and did not have specifics as to why they were issued or what the arrest was being made for. A general warrant placed almost no limitations on the search or arresting authority of a soldier or sheriff. This concept had become a serious problem when those in power issued general warrants to have their enemies arrested when no wrongdoing had been done. The Parliament of Great Britain passed

183-486: A common and successful practice, Parliament realized how difficult it was to enforce the taxing of tea. The Act stated that no more taxes would be placed on tea, and it made the cost of the East India Company's tea less than tea that was smuggled via Holland . It was an incentive for the colonists to purchase the East India Company tea. This was the last of the five acts passed. It was not passed until 8 March 1768,

244-614: A copy of the warrant at the time of its execution. Revenue Act 1767 The Townshend Acts ( / ˈ t aʊ n z ən d / ) or Townshend Duties were a series of British acts of Parliament passed during 1767 and 1768 introducing a series of taxes and regulations to enable administration of the British colonies in America. They are named after the Chancellor of the Exchequer who proposed

305-543: A favourable outcome using a local judge and jury. The Vice-Admiralty Court Act added three new admiralty courts in Boston, Philadelphia and Charleston to aid in more effective prosecutions. These courts were run by judges appointed by the Crown and whose salaries were paid, in the first instance, from fines levied. when they found someone guilty. [...] all forfeitures and penalties inflected by any act or acts of parliament relating to

366-546: Is usually issued by a court and is directed to a sheriff , a constable , or a police officer. Warrants normally issued by a court include search warrants , arrest warrants , and execution warrants . In the United Kingdom , senior public appointments are made by warrant under the royal sign-manual , the personal signature of the monarch , on the recommendation of the government. In an interesting survival from medieval times, these warrants abate (lose their force) on

427-621: The American Revolution . Following the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the British government was deep in debt. To pay a small fraction of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the Parliament of Great Britain decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America . Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts , Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire. But with

488-457: The Chancellor of the Exchequer , devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were only allowed to buy from Great Britain. The colonists' objection to "internal" taxes did not mean that they would accept "external" taxes; the colonial position

549-578: The Chatham ministry 's new approach to generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. The British government had gotten the impression that because the colonists had objected to the Stamp Act on the grounds that it was a direct (or "internal") tax, colonists would therefore accept indirect (or "external") taxes, such as taxes on imports. With this in mind, Charles Townshend,

610-504: The Massachusetts Circular Letter , other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough , who had recently been appointed to

671-546: The Revenue Act 1767 ( 7 Geo. 3 . c. 46) which reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance , or general search warrants , and gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods. This law was one of the key acts of Great Britain which led to the American Revolution , and is the direct reason that the American Founding Fathers ensured that general warrants would be illegal in

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732-580: The Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved. The Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament, but the British government retorted that they had " virtual representation ", a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following

793-566: The United States will take the approximate form of: "This Court orders the Sheriff or Constable to find the named person, wherever he may be found, and deliver said person to the custody of the Court." Generally, a U.S. arrest warrant must contain the caption of the court issuing the warrant, the name (if known) of the person to be arrested, the offense charged, the date of issue, the officer(s) to whom

854-754: The burning of the Gaspee in 1772. The Townshend Acts' taxation of imported tea was enforced once again by the Tea Act 1773 , and this led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773 in which Bostonians destroyed a large shipment of taxed tea. Parliament responded with severe punishments in the Intolerable Acts 1774. The Thirteen Colonies drilled their militia units, and war finally erupted in Lexington and Concord in April 1775, launching

915-541: The British troops stationed there to defend the colony. New York resisted the Quartering Act saying they were being taxed, yet had no direct representation in Parliament. Furthermore, New York didn't think British soldiers were needed any more, since the French and Indian War had come to an end. That from and after the first day of October , one thousand seven hundred and sixty seven, until provision shall have been made by

976-611: The Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay". The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of

1037-468: The Commissioners were indeed corrupt. They engaged in extensive "customs racketeering" and they were involved in many of the episodes of heightened the tension between England and the colonies: it was on their request that troops were sent to Boston; The Boston Massacre took place before their headquarters; the "Gaspee" was operating under their orders. Historian Doug Krehbiel argues: Disputes brought to

1098-720: The Edward Medal one of the rarest British gallantry awards. Only posthumous awards were made after 1949, and the Edward Medal (Industry) (1st class) was not awarded after 1948. The Edward Medal was discontinued in 1971, when surviving recipients of the Edward Medal (along with holders of the Albert Medal ) were invited to exchange their award for the George Cross . Nine (2 silver, 7 bronze) elected not to exchange their medals. [REDACTED] Media related to Edward Medal at Wikimedia Commons Royal warrant (document) A warrant

1159-462: The Edward Medal: Mines and Industry. In both cases (Mines and Industry), the medal was divided in two grades: first class (silver) and second class (bronze), with the medal being a circular silver or bronze medal (as appropriate to the class awarded) suspended from a ribbon 1 3/8" wide and coloured dark blue and edged with yellow. The medal associated with mines depicted colliers at work whilst

1220-471: The Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature. Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now." The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to

1281-521: The Sugar Act, became a major point of contention after Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act 1765 . The Stamp Act proved to be wildly unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year, along with the failure to raise substantial revenue. Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was an issue more fundamental than taxation and representation: the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in

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1342-592: The Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax , Nova Scotia . Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax , Boston, Philadelphia , and Charleston . One purpose of

1403-683: The Townshend duties. In March 1770, most of the taxes from the Townshend Acts were repealed by Parliament under Frederick, Lord North . However, the import duty on tea was retained in order to demonstrate to the colonists that Parliament held the sovereign authority to tax its colonies, in accordance with the Declaratory Act 1766 . The British government continued to tax the American colonies without providing representation in Parliament . American resentment, corrupt British officials, and abusive enforcement spurred colonial attacks on British ships, including

1464-790: The United States by ratifying the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1791. Under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution a warrant is broadly required, which particularly describes the place to be searched, and the persons, or things, to be seized; no warrants may be issued without probable cause , and support by testimony before a judge. The courts have recognized many warrantless searches , including exceptions for routine administrative or inventory searches, searches made under exigent circumstances, and searches made with consent. A typical arrest warrant in

1525-429: The assemblies." Some members of Parliament objected because Townshend's plan was expected to generate only £40,000 in yearly revenue, but he explained that once the precedent for taxing the colonists had been firmly established, the program could gradually be expanded until the colonies paid for themselves. According to historian Peter Thomas, Townshend's "aims were political rather than financial". To better collect

1586-530: The board were almost exclusively resolved in favor of the British government. Vice admiralty courts claimed to prosecute vigorously smugglers but were widely corrupt—customs officials falsely accused ship owners of possessing undeclared items, thereby seizing the cargoes of entire vessels, and justices of the juryless courts were entitled to a percentage of the goods from colonial ships that they ruled unlawful. Writs of assistance and blanket search warrants to search for smuggled goods were liberally abused. John Hancock,

1647-449: The colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board." The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt, according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues: merchants resented not only

1708-464: The colonies. Parliament provided its answer to this question when it repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 by simultaneously passing the Declaratory Act , which proclaimed that Parliament could legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever". This act was the (joint) first act, passed on 29 June 1767, the same day as the Commissioners of Customs Act (see below). It placed taxes on glass, lead, "painters' colors" (paint), paper, and tea. It also gave

1769-470: The colonies. This followed from the principle of mercantilism in England, which meant the colonies were forced to trade only with England. The British East India Company was one of England's largest companies but was on the verge of collapse due to much cheaper smuggled Dutch tea. Part of the purpose of the entire series of Townshend Acts was to save the company from imploding. Since tea smuggling had become

1830-402: The colonies. This tax cut in England would be partially offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies. The Revenue Act also reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance , or general search warrants , which gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods. The original stated purpose of the Townshend duties was to raise a revenue to help pay

1891-576: The cost of maintaining an army in North America. Townshend changed the purpose of the tax plan, however, and instead decided to use the revenue to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. Previously, the colonial assemblies had paid these salaries, but Parliament hoped to take the " power of the purse " away from the colonies. According to historian John C. Miller, "Townshend ingeniously sought to take money from Americans by means of parliamentary taxation and to employ it against their liberties by making colonial governors and judges independent of

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1952-661: The death of the sovereign if they have not already been executed. This particularly applied to death warrants in the days when England authorized capital punishment . Perhaps the most well-known example of this occurred on 17 November 1558, when England was under the rule of a Catholic queen, Mary I , daughter of Henry VIII and the Spanish Catholic Catherine of Aragon . Several Protestants convicted of heresy had been condemned to die. They were tied to stakes in Smithfield , an open market area in central London , and

2013-597: The firewood bundles were about to be lit, when a royal messenger rode up to announce that Mary I had died: the warrants for their death had lost their force. The first formal act of Mary's successor, the Protestant Elizabeth I , daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn , was to decline to re-issue the warrants; the Protestants were released a few weeks later. For many years, the English, later British, government had used

2074-453: The industry medal had a female figure with an industrial complex in the background. Peculiarly, the cost of the Edward Medal (Mines) was borne by a fund established by a group of philanthropists (including prominent mine owners) and not the state. The Edward Medal (Mines) was awarded only 395 times (77 silver and 318 bronze) and the Edward Medal (Industry) only 188 times (25 silver and 163 bronze, of which only two were awarded to women), making

2135-629: The new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 41) established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs . The board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in

2196-539: The newly created office of Colonial Secretary , was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard , instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind

2257-629: The occupation of Boston by British troops. This led to the Boston Massacre . This was the (joint) third of the five acts, passed on 2 July 1767, the same day as the Indemnity Act. It forbade the New York Assembly and the governor of New York from passing any new bills until they complied with the Quartering Act 1765 . That act required New York to provide housing, food and supplies for

2318-460: The option of trial by jury, which was considered to be a fundamental right of British subjects. In addition, the accused person had to travel to the court of jurisdiction at his own expense; if he did not appear, he was automatically considered guilty. The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes simply known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 46). This act represented

2379-576: The program. Historians vary slightly as to which acts they include under the heading "Townshend Acts", but five are often listed: The purposes of the acts were to The Townshend Acts met resistance in the colonies. People debated them in the streets, and in the colonial newspapers . Opponents of the Acts gradually became violent, leading to the Boston Massacre of 1770. The Acts placed an indirect tax on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea, all of which had to be imported from Britain. This form of revenue generation

2440-538: The programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on 4 September 1767. The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled " Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania ", which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there

2501-470: The said act [...] to any particular court to grant such writs of assistance for the officers of the customs in the said plantations, it is doubted whether such officers can legally enter houses and other places on land, to search for and seize goods, in the manner directed by the said recited acts. To obviate which doubts for the future, and in order to carry the intention of the said recited acts into effectual execution, be it enacted [...], That from and after

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2562-430: The said assembly of New York for furnishing his Majesty's troops within the said province with all such necessaries as are required by the said acts of parliament ... it shall not be lawful for the governor ... to pass, or give his or their assent to, or concurrence in, the making or passing of any act of assembly; or his or their assent to any order, resolution, or vote, in concurrence with the house of representatives for

2623-427: The said plantations, as his Majesty [...] shall judge to be most for the advantage or trade, and security of the revenue of the said British colonies. 7 Geo. 3. c. 41 s. 1 Once the new Customs Board was in operation, enforcement increased, leading to a confrontation with smuggling colonists. Incidents between customs officials, military personnel and colonists broke out across the colonies, eventually leading to

2684-427: The said twentieth day of November, one thousand seven hundred and sixty seven, such writs of assistance, [...] shall and may be granted by the said superior or supreme court of justice having jurisdiction within such colony or plantation respectively. 7 Geo. 3. c. 46, s. 10 There was an angry response from colonists, who deemed the taxes a threat to their rights as British subjects. The use of writs of assistance

2745-406: The same in his Majesty's store-house next to the place where such seizure shall be made; and whereas by an act [...] it is, amongst other things, enacted, that the officers for collecting and managing his Majesty's revenue, and inspecting the plantation trade, in America, shall have the same powers and authorities [as] is provided for the officers of England: but, no authority being expressly given by

2806-419: The squeeze on smuggling but also the exploits by unscrupulous customs agents that came with it. Such "customs racketeering" was, in the view of colonial merchants, essentially legalized piracy. Historian Edmund Morgan says: In the establishment of this American Board of Customs Commissioners, Americans saw the extension of England's corrupt system of officeholding to America. As Professor Dickerson has shown,

2867-702: The supreme court of each colony the power to issue " writs of assistance ", general warrants that could be issued to customs officers and used to search private property for smuggled goods. And whereas by an act of parliament, [...] it is lawful for any officer of his Majesty's customs, authorized by writ of assistance under the seal of his Majesty's court of exchequer, [...] and in the day-time to enter and go into any house, shop, cellar, warehouse, or room or other place, and in case of resistance, to break open doors, chests, trunks, and other package there, to seize, and from thence to bring, any kind of goods or merchandize whatsoever prohibited or uncustomed, and to put and secure

2928-415: The time being within the said colony, or for the said house of representatives to pass or make any bill, order, resolution, or vote, (orders, resolutions, or votes, for adjourning such house only, excepted) of any kind, for any other purpose whatsoever 7 Geo. 3. c. 59 Before the act was implemented, New York reluctantly agreed to provide some of the soldiers' needs, so it was never applied. This Act

2989-501: The trade or revenues of the British colonies or plantations in America , may be prosecuted, sued for, and recovered, in any court of vice-admiralty appointed, or to be appointed, and which shall have jurisdiction within the colony, plantation, or place, where the cause of such prosecution or suit shall have arisen. 8 Geo. 3. c. 22 s. 1 The decisions were made solely by the judge, without

3050-601: The vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries , was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations. Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York General Assembly , which had refused to comply with the Quartering Act 1765 because its members saw the act's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act (7 Geo 3 c 59), which according to historian Robert Chaffin

3111-402: The warrant is directed, and the signature of the magistrate. Warrants may also be issued by other government entities, including legislatures , since most have the power to compel the attendance of their members. When a legislature issues a warrant, it is called a call of the house . The person being investigated, arrested, or having their property seized, pursuant to a warrant is given

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3172-528: The wealthy New England merchant, had his ship "Liberty" seized in 1768 on a false charge, incensing the colonists. Charges against Hancock were later dropped and his ship returned because of the fear that he would appeal to more scrupulous customs officials in Britain. Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act 1768 (8 Geo 3 c 22). Although often included in discussions of

3233-737: The year after the other four. Lord Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, after whom the Townshend Acts were named, had died suddenly in September 1767, and so did not introduce this Act. The Act was passed to aid the prosecution of smugglers. It gave admiralty courts , rather than colonial courts, jurisdiction over all matters concerning customs violations and smuggling. Before the Act, customs violators could be tried in an admiralty court in Halifax, Nova Scotia, if royal prosecutors believed they would not get

3294-453: Was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts", suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to

3355-549: Was Townshend's response to the failure of the Stamp Act 1765 , which had provided the first form of direct taxation placed upon the colonies. However, the import duties proved to be similarly controversial. Colonial indignation over the acts was expressed in John Dickinson 's Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania and in the Massachusetts Circular Letter . There was widespread protest, and American port cities refused to import British goods, so Parliament began to partially repeal

3416-510: Was handled by the Customs Board back in England. Due to the distance, enforcement was poor, taxes were avoided and smuggling was rampant. Be it therefore enacted [...] that the customs and other duties imposed [...] upon any goods or merchandise brought or imported into, or exported or carried from, any British colony or plantation in America , may, from time to time, be put under the management and direction of such commissioners, to reside in

3477-531: Was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. "Never could a fateful measure have had a more quiet passage", wrote historian Peter Thomas. The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 56), which was intended to make the tea of the British East India Company more competitive with smuggled Dutch tea. The Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to

3538-412: Was no difference between "internal" and "external" taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low since this would set a dangerous precedent. Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters" to James Otis of Massachusetts , informing Otis that "whenever

3599-585: Was passed together with the New York Restraining Act, on 2 July 1767. ' Indemnity ' means 'security or protection against a loss or other financial burden'. The Indemnity Act 1767 reduced taxes on the British East India Company when they imported tea into England. This allowed them to re-export the tea to the colonies more cheaply and resell it to the colonists. Until this time, all items had to be shipped to England first from wherever they were made and then re-exported to their destination, including to

3660-520: Was significantly controversial since the right to be secure in one's private property was an established right in Britain. This act was passed on 29 June 1767. It created a new Customs Board for the North American colonies, to be headquartered in Boston with five customs commissioners. New offices were eventually opened in other ports as well. The board was created to enforce shipping regulations and increase tax revenue. Previously, customs enforcement

3721-458: Was that any tax laid by Parliament for the purpose of raising revenue was unconstitutional. "Townshend's mistaken belief that Americans regarded internal taxes as unconstitutional and external taxes constitutional", wrote historian John Phillip Reid, "was of vital importance in the history of events leading to the Revolution." The Townshend Revenue Act received royal assent on 29 June 1767. There

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