An Easter Drama is a liturgical drama or religious theatrical performance in the Roman Catholic tradition, largely limited to the Middle Ages . These performances evolved from celebrations of the liturgy to incorporate later dramatic and secular elements, and came to be performed in local languages. They were succeeded by the Passion Plays .
124-506: In the Middle Ages, the celebration of liturgical feasts was as rich and varied as they were numerous; poetry and music, in particular, were used to impress on the congregation the significance of the events commemorated. Liturgical worship is in itself dramatic, with its stylized dialogues and the use of choirs. Often, as at Christmas , Epiphany , and Easter , the text of the Gospel called for
248-470: A Tiberieum , a word otherwise unattested but following a pattern of naming buildings about Roman emperors. Bond argues that we cannot be sure what kind of building this referred to. G. Alföldy argued that it was some sort of secular building, namely a lighthouse, while Joan Taylor and Jerry Vardaman argue that it was a temple dedicated to Tiberius. A second inscription, which has since been lost, has historically been associated with Pontius Pilate. It
372-715: A change which Ann Wroe suggests reflects the fact that, following the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (312), it was no longer necessary to deflect criticism of Pilate (and by extension of the Roman Empire) for his role in Jesus's crucifixion onto the Jews. Bart Ehrman , on the other hand, argues that the tendency in the Early Church to exonerate Pilate and blame
496-414: A complete biography for him and portrayed him as villainous and cowardly. Many of these legends connected Pilate's place of birth or death to particular locations around Western Europe , such as claiming his body was buried in a particularly dangerous or cursed local area. Pilate has frequently been a subject of artistic representation. Medieval art frequently portrays scenes of Pilate and Jesus, often in
620-766: A follower of Christ. His beheading is accompanied by a voice from heaven calling him blessed and saying he will be with Jesus at the Second Coming . The Evangelium Gamalielis , possibly of medieval origin and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez , says Jesus was crucified by Herod, whereas Pilate was a true believer in Christ who was martyred for his faith; similarly, the Martyrium Pilati , possibly medieval and preserved in Arabic, Coptic, and Ge'ez, portrays Pilate, as well as his wife and two children, as being crucified twice, once by
744-540: A formal ritual enacted by those who understand themselves to be participating in an action with the divine. The word liturgy ( / l ɪ t ə r dʒ i / ), derived from the technical term in ancient Greek ( Greek : λειτουργία ), leitourgia , which means "work or service for the people" is a literal translation of the two affixes λήϊτος, "leitos", derived from the Attic form of λαός ("people, public"), and ἔργον, "ergon", meaning "work, service". In origin, it signified
868-455: A king who was skilled in astrology and named Atus lived in Mainz . The king reads in the stars that he will bear a son who will rule over many lands, so he has a miller's daughter named Pila brought to him whom he impregnates; Pilate's name thus results from the combination of the names Pila with Atus . A few years later, Pilate is brought to his father's court where he kills his half-brother. As
992-612: A majority of modern treatments of Pilate dating to after the Second World War. Pilate has also frequently been portrayed in film. Sources on Pontius Pilate are limited, although modern scholars know more about him than about other Roman governors of Judaea . The most important sources are the Embassy to Gaius (after the year 41) by contemporary Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish Wars ( c. 74 ) and Antiquities of
1116-504: A military command before becoming prefect of Judaea; historian Alexander Demandt speculates that this could have been with a legion stationed at the Rhine or Danube . Although it is therefore likely Pilate served in the military, it is nevertheless not certain. Pilate was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, during the reign of the emperor Tiberius . The post of governor of Judaea
1240-507: A part of almost all Passion Plays and has been retained even in their latest survivor. The Magdalene Play represents the seduction of Mary Magdalene by the devil and her sinful life up to her conversion. In Magdalene's sinfulness the people saw a picture of the depraved condition of mankind after the sin of the Garden of Eden , from which it could be redeemed only through the sacrifice of Christ. This profound thought, which could not be effaced even by
1364-481: A police than a military force, and Pilate's duties extended beyond military matters. As Roman governor, he was head of the judicial system. He had the power to inflict capital punishment , and was responsible for collecting tributes and taxes, and for disbursing funds, including the minting of coins. Because the Romans allowed a certain degree of local control, Pilate shared a limited amount of civil and religious power with
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#17328524159861488-405: A policy of promoting the imperial cult , which may have caused some of the friction with his Jewish subjects. Schwartz suggests that Pilate's entire tenure was characterized by "continued underlying tension between governor and governed, now and again breaking out in brief incidents." According to Josephus in his The Jewish War (2.9.2) and Antiquities of the Jews (18.3.1), Pilate offended
1612-436: A portrait of the emperor, though they included some pagan designs. E. Stauffer and E. M. Smallwood argued that the coins' use of pagan symbols was deliberately meant to offend the Jews and connected changes in their design to the fall of the powerful Praetorian prefect Sejanus in 31. This theory was rejected by Helen Bond, who argued that there was nothing particularly offensive about the designs. Joan Taylor has argued that
1736-508: A presumed original. At the turn of the 20th century, it was generally held to be fake, a forgery in support of a local legend that Pontius Pilate died in exile in Ameria. The more recent scholars Alexander Demandt and Henry MacAdam both believe that the inscription is genuine, but attests to a person who simply had the same cognomen as Pontius Pilate. MacAdam argues that "[i]t is far easier to believe that this very fragmentary inscription prompted
1860-471: A religious group. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and participation in the sacred through activities reflecting praise , thanksgiving, remembrance, supplication , or repentance . It forms a basis for establishing a relationship with God . Technically speaking, liturgy forms a subset of ritual . The word liturgy , sometimes equated in English as " service ", refers to
1984-449: A religious service, be it a sacramental service or a service of public prayer ; usually the former is the referent. In the ancient tradition, sacramental liturgy especially is the participation of the people in the work of God, which is primarily the saving work of Jesus Christ; in this liturgy, Christ continues the work of redemption. The term "liturgy" in Greek literally means to "work for
2108-473: A result, he is sent as a hostage to Rome, where he kills another hostage. As punishment he is sent to the island of Pontius, whose inhabitants he subjugates, thus acquiring the name Pontius Pilate. King Herod hears of this accomplishment and asks him to come to Palestine to aid his rule there; Pilate comes but soon usurps Herod's power. The trial and judgment of Jesus then happens as in the gospels. The emperor in Rome
2232-474: A single amnesty in the year of Jesus's crucifixion. The Gospels' portrayal of Pilate is "widely assumed" to diverge greatly from that found in Josephus and Philo, as Pilate is portrayed as reluctant to execute Jesus and pressured to do so by the crowd and Jewish authorities. John P. Meier notes that in Josephus, by contrast, "Pilate alone [...] is said to condemn Jesus to the cross." Some scholars believe that
2356-513: A title also held by the Jewish kings Herod Agrippa I and Herod Agrippa II and by close advisors to the emperor. Both Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt do not think this especially likely. Various disturbances during Pilate's governorship are recorded in the sources. In some cases, it is unclear if they may be referring to the same event, and it is difficult to establish a chronology of events for Pilate's rule. Joan Taylor argues that Pilate had
2480-518: A type called a "perutah", measured between 13.5 and 17mm, were minted in Jerusalem, and are fairly crudely made. Earlier coins read ΙΟΥΛΙΑ ΚΑΙΣΑΡΟΣ on the obverse and ΤΙΒΕΡΙΟΥ ΚΑΙΣΑΡΟΣ on the reverse, referring to the emperor Tiberius and his mother Livia (Julia Augusta). Following Livia's death, the coins only read ΤΙΒΕΡΙΟΥ ΚΑΙΣΑΡΟΣ . As was typical of Roman coins struck in Judaea, they did not have
2604-678: A variety of roles. The Benedictines of St. Gallen , in Switzerland, in the 10th century wrote sequences , hymns , litanies , and tropes and set them to music. The tropes—elaborations of parts of the Liturgy, particularly the Introit —found universal acceptance and remained in use in various forms until the end of the 17th century. These tropes were dramatic in construction and, as their musical settings prove, were sung alternately by two choirs of men and boys, or by two halfchoirs. The history of
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#17328524159862728-615: Is a formalized service of veneration and worship performed within a Buddhist Sangha in nearly every traditional denomination and sect in the Buddhist world. It is often done one or more times a day and can vary among the Theravada , Mahayana , and Vajrayana sects. The liturgy mainly consists of chanting or reciting a sutra or passages from a sutras , a mantra (especially in Vajrayana), and several gathas . Depending on what practice
2852-581: Is exiled by the emperor Nero , after which he commits suicide. A similar narrative plays out in the Vindicta Salvatoris (8th century). In the Mors Pilati (perhaps originally 6th century, but recorded c. 1300 CE ), Pilate was forced to commit suicide and his body thrown in the Tiber. However, the body is surrounded by demons and storms, so that it is removed from the Tiber and instead cast into
2976-535: Is given by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr around 160. Tibor Grüll believes that this could be a reference to Pilate's actual records, but other scholars argue that Justin has simply invented the records as a source on the assumption that they existed without ever having verified their existence. Beginning in the fourth century, a large body of Christian apocryphal texts developed concerning Pilate, making up one of
3100-670: Is intelligible only in the light of His work as teacher, this part of the life of Christ was also added, while some authors of these plays went back to the Old Testament for symbolical scenes, which they added to the Passion Plays as "prefigurations"; or the plays begin with the Creation, the sin of Adam and Eve, and the fall of the Angels. Again two short dramas were inserted: the Lament of Mary and
3224-478: Is known about the circumstances that led to his appointment to the governorship. Coins that he minted have survived from Pilate's governorship, as well as a single inscription, the so-called Pilate stone . The Jewish historian Josephus , the philosopher Philo of Alexandria, and the Gospel of Luke all mention incidents of tension and violence between the Jewish population and Pilate's administration. Many of these incidents involve Pilate acting in ways that offended
3348-477: Is largely stereotyped and rhetorical, portraying Pilate with the same words as other opponents of Jewish law, while portraying Tiberius as just and supportive of Jewish law. It is unclear why the shields offended against Jewish law: it is likely that they contained an inscription referring to Tiberius as divi Augusti filius (son of divine Augustus). Bond dates the incident to 31, sometime after Sejanus's death in 17 October. In another incident recorded in both
3472-478: Is nevertheless forced to execute Jesus by the increasingly angry crowd, but Jesus tells Pilate that he does not hold him responsible. This book enjoys "a quasi-canonical status" among Ethiopian Christians to this day and continues to be read beside the canonical gospels during Holy Week . Seven of the Pilate texts mention Pilate's fate after the crucifixion: in three, he becomes a very positive figure, while in four he
3596-550: Is presented as diabolically evil. A fifth-century Syriac version of the Acts of Pilate explains Pilate's conversion as occurring after he has blamed the Jews for Jesus' death in front of Tiberius; prior to his execution, Pilate prays to God and converts, thereby becoming a Christian martyr. In the Greek Paradosis Pilati (5th century), Pilate is arrested for the crime of executing Jesus, although he has since converted to be
3720-413: Is rare, so the ring could be associated with Pontius Pilate; however, given the cheap material, it is unlikely that he would have owned it. It is possible that the ring belonged to another individual named Pilate, or that it belonged to someone who worked for Pontius Pilate. Due to his role in Jesus' trial, Pilate became an important figure in both pagan and Christian propaganda in late antiquity. Perhaps
3844-402: Is suffering from a terrible disease at this time, and hearing of Christ's healing powers, sends for him only to learn from Saint Veronica that Christ has been crucified, but she possesses a cloth with the image of his face. Pilate is taken as a prisoner with her to Rome to be judged, but every time the emperor sees Pilate to condemn him, his anger dissipates. This is revealed to be because Pilate
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3968-606: Is the practice of physical and compulsory prayer in Islam as opposed to dua , which is the Arabic word for supplication . Its importance for Muslims is indicated by its status as one of the Five Pillars of Islam . Salat is preceded by ritual ablution and usually performed five times a day. It consists of the repetition of a unit called a rakʿah (pl. rakaʿāt ) consisting of prescribed actions and words. The number of obligatory ( fard ) rakaʿāt varies from two to four according to
4092-478: Is unclear whether any hearing took place, as new emperors often dismissed outstanding legal matters from previous reigns. The only sure outcome of Pilate's return to Rome is that he was not reinstated as governor of Judaea, either because the hearing went badly, or because Pilate did not wish to return. J. P. Lémonon argues that the fact that Pilate was not reinstated by Caligula does not mean that his trial went badly, but may simply have been because after ten years in
4216-453: Is unknown; his cognomen Pilatus might mean "skilled with the javelin ( pilum )", but it could also refer to the pileus or Phrygian cap , possibly indicating that one of Pilate's ancestors was a freedman . If it means "skilled with the javelin", it is possible that Pilate won the cognomen for himself while serving in the Roman military ; it is also possible that his father acquired
4340-517: Is wearing Jesus's coat; when the coat is removed, the Emperor condemns him to death, but Pilate commits suicide first. The body is first thrown in the Tiber, but because it causes storms it is then moved to Vienne, and then thrown in a lake in the high Alps. One important version of the Pilate legend is found in the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine (1263–1273 CE), one of the most popular books of
4464-460: Is written entirely in German. But it was only after the popular element had asserted itself strongly in all departments of poetry, in the 14th and 15th centuries, that the popular German religious drama was developed. This was brought about chiefly by the strolling players who were certainly responsible for the introduction of the servant, of the ointment-vender (named Rubin), whose duty it was to entertain
4588-636: The siddur , the traditional Jewish prayer book. In general, Jewish men are obligated to pray three times a day within specific time ranges ( zmanim ) . while, according most modern Orthodox authorities, women are only required to pray once daily, as they are generally exempted from obligations that are time dependent. All communal prayer requires a minyan , a quorum of 10 adults, to be present. Traditionally, three prayer services are recited daily: Additional prayers: Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate ( Latin : Pontius Pilatus ; Greek : Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος , romanized : Póntios Pilátos )
4712-440: The Acts of Pilate ), Pilate is portrayed as forced to execute Jesus by the Jews and as distraught at having done so. One version claims to have been discovered and translated by a Jewish convert named Ananias, portraying itself as the official Jewish records of the crucifixion. Another claims that the records were made by Pilate himself, relying on reports made to him by Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea . Some Eastern versions of
4836-503: The Embassy to Gaius , although he is writing only a few years after Pilate's tenure as governor. A single inscription by Pilate has survived in Caesarea, on the " Pilate Stone ". The (partially reconstructed) inscription is as follows: Vardaman "freely" translates it as follows: "Tiberium [?of the Caesareans?] Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea [ ... has given?]". The fragmentary nature of
4960-563: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church believes that Pilate became a Christian and venerates him as both a martyr and a saint , a belief which is historically shared by the Coptic Church , with a feast day on 19 or 25 June, respectively. Although Pilate is the best-attested governor of Judaea, few sources regarding his rule have survived. Nothing is known about his life before he became governor of Judaea, and nothing
5084-523: The Jewish Wars (2.9.4) and the Antiquities of the Jews (18.3.2), Josephus relates that Pilate offended the Jews by using up the temple treasury ( korbanos ) to pay for a new aqueduct to Jerusalem. When a mob formed while Pilate was visiting Jerusalem, Pilate ordered his troops to beat them with clubs; many perished from the blows or from being trampled by horses, and the mob was dispersed. The dating of
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5208-522: The Jews and Jewish Christians . Others have tried to explain Pilate's behavior in the Gospels as motivated by a change of circumstances from that shown in Josephus and Philo, usually presupposing a connection between Pilate's caution and the death of Sejanus. Yet other scholars, such as Brian McGing and Bond, have argued that there is no real discrepancy between Pilate's behavior in Josephus and Philo and that in
5332-616: The Mary Magdalene Play. The sequence "Planctus ante nescia", which was brought to Germany from France during the latter half of the 12th century, is the basis for the Lamentations of Mary. This sequence is merely a monologue of Mary at the foot of the Cross; by the introduction of John, the Saviour, and the bystanders as taking part in the lamentations, a dramatic scene was developed which became
5456-569: The Samnites in the third and first centuries BC, respectively, before their full incorporation to the Roman Republic . Like all but one other governor of Judaea, Pilate was of the equestrian order , a middle rank of the Roman nobility. As one of the attested Pontii, Pontius Aquila (an assassin of Julius Caesar ) was a tribune of the plebs ; the family must have originally been of plebeian origin and later became ennobled as equestrians. Pilate
5580-642: The Talmud ( Lamentations Rabbah 4.4) records the destruction of an aqueduct from Solomon's Pools by the Sicarii , a group of fanatical religious Zealots , during the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73); he suggests that if the aqueduct had been funded by the temple treasury as recorded in Josephus, this might explain the Sicarii's targeting of this particular aqueduct. However, more recent research, published in 2021, dates
5704-556: The temple treasury to construct an aqueduct , as recorded by Josephus, without the cooperation of the priests. Similarly, Helen Bond argues that Pilate is depicted working closely with the Jewish authorities in the execution of Jesus. Jean-Pierre Lémonon argues that official cooperation with Pilate was limited to the Sadducees, noting that the Pharisees are absent from the gospel accounts of Jesus's arrest and trial. Daniel Schwartz takes
5828-609: The 10th to the 18th century. The trope, however, did not develop into a dramatic scene until it was brought into connection with the Descent from the Cross . It was widely commemorated in Continental monasteries, but appears first in a ritual of English origin, attributed to St. Dunstan (967). In giving directions for public services, the Ritual refers to this custom particularly as observed at Fleury-sur-Loire and Ghent . On Good Friday , after
5952-526: The Elder , the governor of Syria (term 35–39), who had Pilate recalled to Rome to be judged by Tiberius . Tiberius, however, had died before his arrival. This dates the end of Pilate's governorship to 36/37. Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March in 37, in his seventy-eighth year (Tacitus, Annals VI.50 , VI.51 ). Following Tiberius's death, Pilate's hearing would have been handled by the new emperor Caligula : it
6076-478: The Gospel accounts are completely untrustworthy: S. G. F. Brandon argued that in reality, rather than vacillating on condemning Jesus, Pilate unhesitatingly executed him as a rebel. Paul Winter explained the discrepancy between Pilate in other sources and Pilate in the gospels by arguing that Christians became more and more eager to portray Pontius Pilate as a witness to Jesus' innocence, as persecution of Christians by
6200-467: The Gospel of Nicodemus claim that Pilate was born in Egypt, which likely aided his popularity there. The Christian Pilate literature surrounding the Gospel of Nicodemus includes at least fifteen late antique and early medieval texts, called the " Pilate cycle ", written and preserved in various languages and versions and dealing largely with Pontius Pilate. Two of these include purported reports made by Pilate to
6324-444: The Gospels' portrayal of Pilate cannot be considered historical, since Pilate is always described in other sources ( The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews of Josephus and Embassy to Gaius of Philo ) as a cruel and obstinate man. Brown also rejects the historicity of Pilate washing his hands and of the blood curse , arguing that these narratives, which only appear in the Gospel of Matthew , reflect later contrasts between
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#17328524159866448-580: The Gospels. Warren Carter argues that Pilate is portrayed as skillful, competent, and manipulative of the crowd in Mark, Matthew, and John, only finding Jesus innocent and executing him under pressure in Luke. N. T. Wright and Craig A. Evans argue that Pilate's hesitation was due to the fear of causing a revolt during Passover , when large numbers of pilgrims were in Jerusalem . According to Josephus' Antiquities of
6572-465: The Great petitioned him to remove the shields, but Pilate refused. Herod's sons then threatened to petition the emperor, an action which Pilate feared would expose the crimes he had committed in office. He did not prevent their petition. Tiberius received the petition and angrily reprimanded Pilate, ordering him to remove the shields. Helen Bond, Daniel Schwartz, and Warren Carter argue that Philo's portrayal
6696-459: The Jewish Sanhedrin . Pilate was subordinate to the legate of Syria ; however, for the first six years in which he held office, Syria's legate Lucius Aelius Lamia was absent from the region, something which Helen Bond believes may have presented difficulties to Pilate. He seems to have been free to govern the province as he wished, with intervention by the legate of Syria only coming at
6820-537: The Jews ( c. 94 ) by the Jewish historian Josephus , as well as the four canonical Christian gospels , Mark (composed between 66 and 70), Luke (composed between 85 and 90), Matthew (composed between 85 and 90), and John (composed between 90 and 110), each authored anonymously; he is also mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (composed between 85 and 90) and in the First Epistle to Timothy (written in
6944-560: The Jews (18.4.1–2), Pilate's removal as governor occurred after Pilate slaughtered a group of armed Samaritans at a village called Tirathana near Mount Gerizim , where they hoped to find artifacts that had been buried there by Moses . Alexander Demandt suggests that the leader of this movement may have been Dositheos , a messiah -like figure among the Samaritans who was known to have been active around this time. The Samaritans, claiming not to have been armed, complained to Lucius Vitellius
7068-494: The Jews and not Pilate were responsible for Jesus' death; he therefore also assumed that Pilate did not die a shameful death. Pilate's supposed suicide is also left unmentioned in Josephus, Philo, and Tacitus. Maier argues that "[i]n all probability, then, the fate of Pontius Pilate lay clearly in the direction of a retired government official, a pensioned Roman ex-magistrate, than in anything more disastrous." Taylor notes that Philo discusses Pilate as though he were already dead in
7192-505: The Jews and once by Tiberius, for his faith. In addition to the report on Pilate's suicide in Eusebius, Grüll notes three Western apocryphal traditions about Pilate's suicide. In the Cura sanitatis Tiberii (dated variously 5th to 7th century), the emperor Tiberius is healed by an image of Jesus brought by Saint Veronica , Saint Peter then confirms Pilate's report on Jesus's miracles, and Pilate
7316-412: The Jews by moving imperial standards with the image of Caesar into Jerusalem. This resulted in a crowd of Jews surrounding Pilate's house in Caesarea for five days. Pilate then summoned them to an arena , where the Roman soldiers drew their swords. But the Jews showed so little fear of death, that Pilate relented and removed the standards. Bond argues that the fact that Josephus says that Pilate brought in
7440-479: The Jews nor Herod do so. The Gospel includes a scene in which the centurions who had been guarding Jesus' tomb report to Pilate that Jesus has been resurrected. The fragmentary third-century Manichaean Gospel of Mani has Pilate refer to Jesus as "the Son of God" and telling his centurions to "[k]eep this secret". In the most common version of the passion narrative in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus (also called
7564-413: The Jews prior to this time reflects an increasing "anti-Judaism" among Early Christians. The earliest attestation of a positive tradition about Pilate comes from the late first-, early second-century Christian author Tertullian , who, claiming to have seen Pilate's report to Tiberius, states Pilate had "become already a Christian in his conscience." An earlier reference to Pilate's records of Jesus's trial
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#17328524159867688-631: The Latin "ministerium") is a duty for Christians as a priestly people by their baptism into Christ and participation in His high priestly ministry. It is also God's ministry or service to the worshippers. It is a reciprocal service. Historically, there was a Christian thought that stresses the idea of the entire liturgy being needed to transform the bread and wine into Eucharistic elements (see Eucharist ). This may have been prevalent especially in Egypt. Usually, many Christian churches designate one person who participates in
7812-547: The Rhone, where the same thing happens. Finally, the corpse is taken to Lausanne in modern Switzerland and buried in an isolated lake (perhaps Lake Lucerne ), where demonic visitations continue to occur. Beginning in the eleventh century, more extensive legendary biographies of Pilate were written in Western Europe, adding details to information provided by the bible and apocrypha. The legend exists in many different versions and
7936-458: The Roman authorities increased. Bart Ehrman argues that the Gospel of Mark , the earliest one, shows the Jews and Pilate to be in agreement about executing Jesus (Mark 15:15), while the later gospels progressively reduce Pilate's culpability, culminating in Pilate allowing the Jews to crucify Jesus in John (John 19:16). He connects this change to increased "anti-Judaism". Raymond E. Brown argued that
8060-490: The Roman provinces and applied to non-Roman citizens that provided the prefect with greater flexibility in handling the case. All four gospels also mention that Pilate had the custom of releasing one captive in honor of the Passover festival; this custom is not attested in any other source. Historians disagree on whether or not such a custom is a fictional element of the gospels, reflects historical reality, or perhaps represents
8184-479: The author attributes Jesus's persecution under Pilate's governorship. Ignatius further dates Jesus's birth, passion, and resurrection during Pilate's governorship in his epistle to the Magnesians (11.1). Ignatius stresses all these events in his epistles as historical facts. Bond argues that Jesus's arrest was made with Pilate's prior knowledge and involvement, based on the presence of a 500-strong Roman cohort among
8308-479: The coarse reproduction of Magdalene's life, explains the presence of this little drama in the Passion Play. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Passion Plays ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Liturgical Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by
8432-426: The cognomen through military skill. In the Gospels of Mark and John, Pilate is only called by his cognomen, which Marie-Joseph Ollivier takes to mean that this was the name by which he was generally known in common speech. The name Pontius suggests that an ancestor of his came from Samnium in central, southern Italy, and he may have belonged to the family of Gavius Pontius and Pontius Telesinus , two leaders of
8556-456: The construction of another one of the aqueducts providing water to Solomon's Pools, namely the Biar Aqueduct (also known as Wadi el-Biyar Aqueduct), to the mid-first century AD, probably during the time of Pilate. In 2018, an inscription on a thin copper-alloy sealing ring that had been discovered at Herodium was uncovered using modern scanning techniques. The inscription reads ΠΙΛΑΤΟ(Υ) ( Pilato(u) ), meaning "of Pilate". The name Pilatus
8680-432: The course of the 3rd century AD, as a form of taxation. The holder of a Hellenic leitourgia was not taxed a specific sum, but was assigned to subsidise a particular ritual, which could be performed with greater or lesser generosity or magnificence. The chief sphere remained that of civic religion, embodied in the festivals: M.I. Finley notes "in Demosthenes ' day there were at least 97 liturgical appointments in Athens for
8804-735: The earliest apocryphal texts attributed to Pilate are denunciations of Christianity and of Jesus that claim to be Pilate's report on the crucifixion. According to Eusebius ( Church History 9.2.5), these texts were distributed during the persecution of Christians conducted by the emperor Maximinus II (reigned 308–313). None of these texts survive, but Tibor Grüll argues that their contents can be reconstructed from Christian apologetic texts. Positive traditions about Pilate are frequent in Eastern Christianity, particularly in Egypt and Ethiopia, whereas negative traditions predominate in Western and Byzantine Christianity. Additionally, earlier Christian traditions portray Pilate more positively than later ones,
8928-559: The ecclesiastical drama begins with the trope sung as Introit of the Mass on Easter Sunday. It has come down to us in a St. Gallen manuscript dating from the time of the 10th century monk Tutilo . The conversation held between the holy women and the angels at Christ's sepulchre forms the text of this trope, which consists of the four sentences: Also known as the Quem quaeritis? , the first three sentences are found in many liturgical books dating from
9052-469: The edification or instruction of the people, though they satisfied their love of novelty and amusement. In this way the early Easter celebrations became real dramatic performances, known as the Easter Plays. Since the element of worldly amusement predominated more and more (a development of which Gerhoh of Reichersberg complained as early as the 12th century), the ecclesiastical authorities began to prohibit
9176-538: The emperor (the Anaphora Pilati to Emperor Tiberius and the Letter of Pilate to Claudius to Claudius ) on the crucifixion, in which Pilate recounts Jesus' death and resurrection, blaming the Jews. Another purports to be an angry reply by Tiberius, condemning Pilate for his role in Jesus' death, the Letter of Tiberius to Pilate . Another early text is an apocryphal letter attributed to "Herod" (a composite character of
9300-428: The emperor died before Pilate arrived in Rome. Nothing is known about what happened to him after this event. On the basis of events which were documented by the second-century pagan philosopher Celsus and the Christian apologist Origen , most modern historians believe that Pilate simply retired after his dismissal. Modern historians have differing assessments of Pilate as an effective ruler: while some believe that he
9424-546: The end of his tenure, after the appointment of Lucius Vitellius to the post in 35. Like other Roman governors of Judaea, Pilate made his primary residence in Caesarea , going to Jerusalem mainly for major feasts to maintain order. He also would have toured around the province in order to hear cases and administer justice. As governor, Pilate had the right to appoint the Jewish High Priest and also officially controlled
9548-666: The festivals, rising to 118 in a (quadrennial) Panathenaic year ." Groups of rich citizens were assigned to subsidise civic amenities and even warships. Eventually, under the Roman Empire , such obligations, known to Romans as munera , devolved into a competitive and ruinously expensive burden that was avoided when possible. Munera included a wide range of expenses having to do with civic infrastructure and amenities; festivals and games ( ludi ) and imperial obligations such as highway, bridge and aqueduct repair, supply of various raw materials, and feeding troops in transit. Buddhist liturgy
9672-408: The founder of the name, had undergone the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius, by sentence of the procurator Pontius Pilate, and the pernicious superstition was checked for a moment..." (Tacitus, Annals 15.44). Josephus also mentioned Jesus 's execution by Pilate at the request of prominent Jews ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.3.3); the text may have been altered by Christian interpolation , but
9796-638: The gospels in particular providing a theological rather than historical perspective on Pilate. Besides these texts, dated coins in the name of emperor Tiberius minted during Pilate's governorship have survived, as well as a fragmentary short inscription that names Pilate, known as the Pilate Stone , the only inscription about a Roman governor of Judaea predating the Jewish–Roman wars to survive. The sources give no indication of Pilate's life prior to his becoming governor of Judaea. His praenomen (first name)
9920-561: The gospels, the Pilate cycle . Attitudes split by region: in texts from the Eastern Roman Empire , Pilate was portrayed as a positive figure. He and his wife are portrayed as Christian converts and sometimes martyrs. In Western Christian texts, he was instead portrayed as a negative figure and villain, with traditions surrounding his death by suicide featuring prominently. Pilate was also the focus of numerous medieval legends, which invented
10044-405: The incident is unknown, but Bond argues that it must have occurred between 26 and 30 or 33, based on Josephus's chronology. The Gospel of Luke mentions in passing Galileans "whose blood Pilate had mingled with their sacrifices" ( Luke 13 :1). This reference has been variously interpreted as referring to one of the incidents recorded by Josephus, or to an entirely unknown incident. Bond argues that
10168-404: The inscription has led to some disagreement about the correct reconstruction, so that "apart from Pilate's name and title the inscription is unclear." Originally, the inscription would have included an abbreviated letter for Pilate's praenomen (e.g., T. for Titus or M. for Marcus). The stone attests Pilate's title of prefect and the inscription appears to refer to some kind of building called
10292-427: The largest groups of surviving New Testament Apocrypha . Originally, these texts served both to unburden Pilate of guilt for the death of Jesus as well as to provide more complete records of Jesus's trial. The apocryphal Gospel of Peter completely exonerates Pilate for the crucifixion, which is instead performed by Herod Antipas . Moreover, the text makes explicit that while Pilate washes his hands of guilt, neither
10416-488: The legend of Pontius Pilate's association with the Italian village of Ameria [...] than it is to posit someone forging the inscription two centuries ago—quite creatively, it would seem—to provide substance for the legend." As governor, Pilate was responsible for minting coins in the province: he appears to have struck them in 29/30, 30/31, and 31/32, thus the fourth, fifth, and sixth years of his governorship. The coins belong to
10540-464: The morning services, a crucifix swathed in cloth was laid in a sort of grave arranged near the altar , where it remained until Easter morning. On Easter morning, after the third responsory of the Matins , one or two clerics clothed in albs , and carrying palms in their hands, went to the grave and seated themselves there. Thereupon three other priests vested in copes , and carrying censers representing
10664-466: The narrative [...] Despite extensive differences, however, there is a certain agreement amongst the evangelists regarding the basic facts, an agreement which may well go beyond literary dependency and reflect actual historical events. Pilate's role in condemning Jesus to death is also attested by the Roman historian Tacitus , who, when explaining Nero 's persecution of the Christians, explains: "Christus,
10788-481: The note in the Gospel of Luke ( Luke 23 :12) that Pilate had a difficult relationship with the Galilean Jewish king Herod Antipas as potentially historical. He also finds historical the information that their relationship mended following the execution of Jesus. Based on John 19 :12, it is possible that Pilate held the title "friend of Caesar" ( Latin : amicus Caesaris , Ancient Greek : φίλος τοῦ Kαίσαρος ),
10912-399: The number of Galileans killed does not seem to have been particularly high. In Bond's view, the reference to "sacrifices" likely means that this incident occurred at Passover at some unknown date. She argues that "[i]t is not only possible but quite likely that Pilate's governorship contained many such brief outbreaks of trouble about which we know nothing. The insurrection in which Barabbas
11036-548: The often expensive offerings wealthy Greeks made in service to the people, and thus to the polis and the state. Through the leitourgia , the rich carried a financial burden and were correspondingly rewarded with honours and prestige. Specific leitourgia were assigned by the polis , the State, and during Rome's domination, the Roman Imperial authorities as "gifts" to the state and the people. Their performance became obligatory in
11160-541: The participation of a choir gave to the Nuremberg Easter celebration of the 13th century the character of a short chanted drama. Such celebrations, however, remained parts of the liturgy as late as the 18th century. They were inserted between Matins and Lauds , and served for the instruction of the people, whose hearts and minds were more deeply impressed by reproductions of the Resurrection of Jesus, which appealed to
11284-429: The party that arrests Jesus in John 18:3. Demandt dismisses the notion that Pilate was involved. It is generally assumed, based on the unanimous testimony of the gospels, that the crime for which Jesus was brought to Pilate and executed was sedition, founded on his claim to be king of the Jews . Pilate may have judged Jesus according to the cognitio extra ordinem , a form of trial for capital punishment used in
11408-439: The people with coarse jests ( Wolfenbüttel , Innsbruck , Berlin , Vienna , and Mecklenburg Easter Plays, 1464). The Latin Easter Plays, with their solemn texts, were still produced, as well as the German plays, but gradually, being displaced by the latter, the Latin text was confined to the meagre Biblical element of the plays and the player's directions. The clergy still retained the right to direct these productions, even after
11532-469: The people", but a better translation is "public service" or "public work", as made clear from the origin of the term as described above. The early Christians adopted the word to describe their principal act of worship, the Sunday service (referred to by various terms, including Holy Eucharist, Holy Communion, Mass or Divine Liturgy), which they considered to be a sacrifice . This service, liturgy, or ministry (from
11656-454: The plays reflected the spirit and opinions of the times. Popular poetry, gross and worldly, dominated in the plays, particularly susceptible to the influence of the Carnival plays. The Easter Plays represented in their day the highest development of the secular drama; nevertheless this most important event in the life of Jesus did not suffice: the people wished to see his whole life, particularly
11780-469: The position it was time for him to take a new posting. Joan Taylor, on the other hand, argues that Pilate seems to have ended his career in disgrace, using his unflattering portrayal in Philo, written only a few years after his dismissal, as proof. The church historian Eusebius ( Church History 2.7.1), writing in the early fourth century, claims that "tradition relates that" Pilate committed suicide after he
11904-403: The potential fate of Pontius Pilate can be gleaned from other sources. The second-century pagan philosopher Celsus polemically asked why, if Jesus was God, God had not punished Pilate, indicating that he did not believe that Pilate shamefully committed suicide. Responding to Celsus, the Christian apologist Origen , writing c. 248 AD , argued that nothing bad happened to Pilate, because
12028-594: The powerful Praetorian Prefect Sejanus , who was executed for treason in 31. Other scholars have cast doubt on any link between Pilate and Sejanus. Daniel R. Schwartz and Kenneth Lönnqvist both argue that the traditional dating of the beginning of Pilate's governorship is based on an error in Josephus; Schwartz argues that he was appointed instead in 19, while Lönnqvist argues for 17/18. These proposed dates have not been widely accepted by other scholars. Pilate's title of prefect implies that his duties were primarily military; however, Pilate's troops were meant more as
12152-606: The practitioner wishes to undertake, it can be done at a temple or at home. The liturgy is almost always performed in front of an object or objects of veneration and accompanied by offerings of light, incense, water, and food. Frequently in Christianity , a distinction is made between "liturgical" and "non-liturgical" churches based on how elaborate or formal the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are called "non-liturgical". Others object to this distinction, arguing that this terminology obscures
12276-523: The production of Easter Plays in the churches. It became necessary to separate them from church services, because of their length, which increased greatly, particularly after the introduction of the story of the Passion . Fragments of an Easter Play in Latin dating from the 13th century are found in the Benedictbeurn Easter Play, also in that of Klosterneuburg , both of which, probably, go back to
12400-510: The reference to the execution is generally considered authentic. Discussing the paucity of extra-biblical mentions of the crucifixion, Alexander Demandt argues that the execution of Jesus was probably not seen as a particularly important event by the Romans, as many other people were crucified at the time and forgotten. In Ignatius 's epistles to the Trallians (9.1) and to the Smyrnaeans (1.2),
12524-467: The religious sensibilities of the Jews. The Christian gospels record that Pilate ordered the crucifixion of Jesus at some point during his time in office; Josephus and the Roman historian Tacitus also record this information. According to Josephus, Pilate was removed from office because he violently suppressed an armed Samaritan movement at Mount Gerizim . He was sent back to Rome by the legate of Syria to answer for this incident before Tiberius, but
12648-621: The same source as the Mystery of Tours , composed as late as the 12th century, and which, better than any other, offers an insight into the development of the Easter Plays from the Latin Easter celebrations. When, in course of time, as shown in the Easter Play of Trier , German translations were added to the original texts as sung and spoken, the popularizing of the Easter Play had begun. That of Muri Abbey , in Switzerland, belongs to this period, and
12772-678: The scene where he washes his hands of guilt for Jesus's death. In the art of the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance , Pilate is often depicted as a Jew. He plays an important role in medieval passion plays , where he is often a more prominent character than Jesus. His characterization in these plays varies greatly, from weak-willed and coerced into crucifying Jesus to being an evil person who demands Jesus's crucifixion. Modern authors who feature Pilate prominently in their works include Anatole France , Mikhail Bulgakov , and Chingiz Aitmatov , with
12896-596: The second half of the 1st century). Ignatius of Antioch mentions him in his epistles to the Trallians , Magnesians , and Smyrnaeans (composed between 105 and 110). He is also briefly mentioned in Annals of the Roman historian Tacitus (early 2nd century), who simply says that he put Jesus to death. Two additional chapters of Tacitus's Annals that might have mentioned Pilate have been lost. The written sources provide only limited information, and each has its own biases, with
13020-662: The senses, than by a sermon. The Latin text was no obstacle, since the separate parts of the plays were known or were previously explained. The wide diffusion of these liturgical plays, in which priests took the different parts, is proof of their popularity. At least 224 Latin Easter dramas are known to have existed, of which 159 were found in Germany, 52 in France, and the rest in Italy, Spain, Holland, and England. The popular taste for dramatic productions
13144-660: The standards by night, shows that he knew that the images of the emperor would be offensive. She dates this incident to early in Pilate's tenure as governor. Daniel Schwartz and Alexander Demandt both suggest that this incident is in fact identical with "the incident with the shields" reported in Philo's Embassy to Gaius , an identification first made by the early church historian Eusebius . Lémonon, however, argues against this identification. According to Philo's Embassy to Gaius ( Embassy to Gaius 38), Pilate offended against Jewish law by bringing golden shields into Jerusalem, and placing them on Herod's Palace . The sons of Herod
13268-504: The story of the Passion. Thus a series of dramas originated, which were called Passion Plays , the sufferings of Jesus being their principal subject. Some of them end with the entombment of Christ; in others the Easter Play was added, in order to show the Saviour in His glory; others again close with the Ascension or with the dispersion of the Apostles . But, since the persecution of the Saviour
13392-540: The symbolism on the coins shows how Pilate attempted to promote the Roman imperial cult in Judaea, in spite of local Jewish and Samaritan religious sensitivities. Attempts to identify the aqueduct that is attributed to Pilate in Josephus date to the 19th century. In the mid-20th century, A. Mazar tentatively identified it as the Arrub aqueduct that brought water from Solomon's Pools to Jerusalem, an identification supported in 2000 by Kenneth Lönnqvist. Lönnqvist notes that
13516-504: The three holy women, joined them. Upon their arrival the "angel" asked them: "Whom seek ye?" The "women" answered; they hear from the "angel" the message of the Resurrection and were told to go forth and announce it. Then they intoned the antiphon : "Surrexit enim, sicut dixit dominus. Alleluia". The choir finished Matins with the Te Deum . This simplest form of liturgical Easter celebration
13640-404: The time of day or other circumstances (such as Friday congregational worship, which has two rakats). Prayer is obligatory for all Muslims except those who are prepubescent , menstruating , or in puerperium stage after childbirth. Jewish liturgy is the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Rabbinic Judaism . These prayers, often with instructions and commentary, are found in
13764-534: The universality of public worship as a religious phenomenon. Thus, even the open or waiting worship of Quakers is liturgical, since the waiting itself until the Holy Spirit moves individuals to speak is a prescribed form of Quaker worship, sometimes referred to as "the liturgy of silence". Typically in Christianity, however, the term "the liturgy" normally refers to a standardised order of events observed during
13888-765: The various Herods in the Bible), which claims to respond to a letter from Pilate in which Pilate spoke of his remorse for Jesus' crucifixion and of having had a vision of the risen Christ; "Herod" asks Pilate to pray for him. In the so-called Book of the Cock , a late-antique apocryphal passion Gospel only preserved in Ge'ez (Ethiopic) but translated from Arabic, Pilate attempts to avoid Jesus's execution by sending him to Herod and writing further letters arguing with Herod not to execute Jesus. Pilate's family become Christians after Jesus miraculously cures Pilate's daughters of their deaf-muteness. Pilate
14012-586: The vestments of the High Priest in the Antonia Fortress . Unlike his predecessor, Valerius Gratus , Pilate retained the same high priest, Joseph ben Caiaphas , for his entire tenure. Caiaphas would be removed following Pilate's own removal from the governorship. This indicates that Caiaphas and the priests of the Sadducee sect were reliable allies to Pilate. Moreover, Maier argues that Pilate could not have used
14136-438: The worship service as the liturgist. The liturgist may read announcements, scriptures, and calls to worship, while the minister preaches the sermon, offers prayers, and blesses sacraments. The liturgist may be either an ordained minister or a lay person. The entire congregation participates in and offers the liturgy to God. Salāt ("prayer", Arabic : صلاة ṣalāh or gen : ṣalāt ; pl. صلوات ṣalawāt )
14260-533: Was a fragmentary, undated inscription on a large piece of marble recorded in Ameria , a village in Umbria , Italy. The inscription read as follows: The only clear items of text are the names "Pilate" and the title quattuorvir ("IIII VIR"), a type of local city official responsible for conducting a census every five years. The inscription was formerly found outside the church of St. Secundus, where it had been copied from
14384-514: Was a particularly brutal and ineffective governor, others believe that his long time in office implies reasonable competence. According to one prominent post-World War II theory, Pilate's mistreatment of the Jews was motivated by antisemitism , but most contemporary historians do not accept this theory. In Late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages , Pilate became the focus of a large group of New Testament apocrypha expanding on his role in
14508-523: Was caught up, if historical, may well be another example." At the Passover of most likely 30 or 33, Pontius Pilate condemned Jesus of Nazareth to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem. The main sources on the crucifixion are the four canonical Christian Gospels , the accounts of which vary. Helen Bond argues that the evangelists' portrayals of Pilate have been shaped to a great extent by their own particular theological and apologetic concerns. [...] Legendary or theological additions have also been made to
14632-475: Was elaborated in many ways by the addition of Biblical sentences, hymns, and sequences, in particular the "Victimae paschali", which dates from the first half of the 11th century; also by the representation of St. Peter and St. John running to the grave, and by the appearance of Jesus, who thenceforth becomes the central figure. The union of these scenes in one concerted action (the dialogue), rendered in poetic form (hymns, sequences) or in prose (Bible texts), and
14756-483: Was extremely widespread in both Latin and the vernacular, and each version contains significant variation, often relating to local traditions. The earliest extant legendary biography is the De Pilato of c. 1050 , with three further Latin versions appearing in the mid-twelfth century, followed by many vernacular translations. Howard Martin summarizes the general content of these legendary biographies as follows:
14880-435: Was fed by these Easter celebrations. The clergy emphasized more and more the dramatic moments, often merely hinted at in the rude original celebrations, and added new subjects, among them some of a secular nature. They introduced the characters of Pontius Pilate , the Jews, and the soldiers guarding the sepulchre, added the figure of an ointment-vender bargaining with the holy women, and other features which did not contribute to
15004-421: Was likely educated, somewhat wealthy, and well-connected politically and socially. He was probably married, but the only extant reference to his wife , in which she tells him not to interact with Jesus after she has had a disturbing dream ( Matthew 27 :19), is generally dismissed as legendary. According to the cursus honorum established by Augustus for office holders of equestrian rank, Pilate would have had
15128-443: Was of relatively low prestige and nothing is known of how Pilate obtained the office. Josephus states that Pilate governed for ten years ( Antiquities of the Jews 18.4.2), and these are traditionally dated from 26 to 36/37, making him one of the two longest-serving governors of the province. As Tiberius had retired to the island of Capri in 26, scholars such as E. Stauffer have argued that Pilate may have actually been appointed by
15252-489: Was recalled to Rome due to the disgrace he was in. Eusebius dates this to 39. Paul Maier notes that no other surviving records corroborate Pilate's suicide, which is meant to document God's wrath for Pilate's role in the crucifixion, and that Eusebius explicitly states that "tradition" is his source, "indicating that he had trouble documenting Pilate's presumed suicide". Daniel Schwartz, however, argues that Eusebius's claims "should not lightly be dismissed." More information on
15376-475: Was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea , serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of Jesus and ultimately ordered his crucifixion . Pilate's importance in Christianity is underscored by his prominent place in both the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds . Because the gospels portray Pilate as reluctant to execute Jesus,
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