172-649: The 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army . The division was raised in 1908 as part of the Territorial Force (TF), originally as the East Lancashire Division , and was redesignated as the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division on 25 May 1915. It was the first TF division to be sent overseas during the First World War . The division fought at Gallipoli , in
344-530: A counterattack role if the Germans invaded. On 5 November 1940, the division moved to Gloucestershire upon transferring again, this time to Lieutenant General Hugh Massy 's XI Corps , and continued its routine of alternating between beach defence and training for potential future operations overseas. In late April 1941, Major General Eric Miles , who had commanded the 126th Brigade with distinction in France and Belgium
516-744: A sidearm or ancillary weapons . Infantry with ranged or polearms often carried a sword or dagger for possible hand-to-hand combat. The pilum was a javelin the Roman legionaries threw just before drawing their primary weapon, the gladius (short sword), and closing with the enemy line. Modern infantrymen now treat the bayonet as a backup weapon, but may also have handguns as sidearms . They may also deploy anti-personnel mines, booby traps, incendiary, or explosive devices defensively before combat. Infantry have employed many different methods of protection from enemy attacks, including various kinds of armour and other gear, and tactical procedures. The most basic
688-470: A 2 mi (3.2 km) front. Preceded by a hurricane bombardment lasting only 35 minutes, the village was captured within four hours. The advance then slowed because of supply and communication difficulties. The Germans brought up reserves and counterattacked , forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about a third of their artillery ammunition , General Sir John French blamed
860-421: A breakthrough from a counter-offensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of French aircraft, which allowed German artillery-observation aircraft and bombers to operate without interference. In May,
1032-488: A breakthrough might no longer be possible and instead focused on forcing a French defeat by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to "bleed France white." As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off entente supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be attacks against the French army intended to inflict maximum casualties; Falkenhayn planned to attack
1204-582: A brief engagement first on 7 August, and then again on 23 August, but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced the French to retreat twice. The German Army swept through Belgium, executing civilians and razing villages. The application of "collective responsibility" against a civilian population further galvanised the entente. Newspapers condemned the German invasion, violence against civilians and destruction of property, which became known as
1376-404: A change in French command at Verdun from the defensive-minded Philippe Pétain to the offensive-minded Robert Nivelle , the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured Fort Vaux on 7 June and with the aid of diphosgene gas, came within 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) of the last ridge before Verdun before being contained on 23 June. Over
1548-621: A dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west. The Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as they did in the Second World War but this considerably restricted their troop redeployment. The Germans achieved an advantage of 192 divisions in the west to the 178 entente divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from
1720-610: A few exceptions like the Mongol Empire , infantry has been the largest component of most armies in history. In the Western world , from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages ( c. 8th century BC to 15th century AD), infantry are categorised as either heavy infantry or light infantry . Heavy infantry, such as Greek hoplites , Macedonian phalangites , and Roman legionaries , specialised in dense, solid formations driving into
1892-467: A fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was higher losses of Allied aircraft, particularly for the British, Portuguese, Belgians and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and tactics. The Allied air successes over the Somme were not repeated. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 air crews and
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#17328512692492064-512: A full suit of attack-proof armour would be too heavy to wear in combat. As firearms improved, armour for ranged defence had to be made thicker and heavier, which hindered mobility. With the introduction of the heavy arquebus designed to pierce standard steel armour, it was proven easier to make heavier firearms than heavier armour; armour transitioned to be only for close combat purposes. Pikemen armour tended to be just steel helmets and breastplates, and gunners had very little or no armour at all. By
2236-417: A hundred meters wide and a dozen rows deep. Maintaining the advantages of heavy infantry meant maintaining formation; this became even more important when two forces with heavy infantry met in battle; the solidity of the formation became the deciding factor. Intense discipline and training became paramount. Empires formed around their military. The organization of military forces into regular military units
2408-623: A long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a large reduction in shipping losses. By 1917, the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two-thirds of the size of the French force. In April 1917 the BEF began the Battle of Arras . The Canadian Corps and the 5th Division of the First Army, fought the Battle of Vimy Ridge , completing the capture of
2580-411: A machine-gun that shot forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades to deflect bullets. Several weeks later Garros force-landed behind German lines. His aeroplane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker , who soon produced a significant improvement, the interrupter gear , in which the machine gun is synchronised with the propeller so it fires in
2752-423: A major push. The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the tank on the battlefield. The entente prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing 3,200–4,100 metres (3,500–4,500 yd) in places but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability. The final phase of
2924-407: A new system of defence. Rather than relying on a heavily fortified front line, the defence was to be arranged in a series of echelons. The front line would be a thinly manned series of outposts, reinforced by a series of strongpoints and a sheltered reserve. If a slope was available, troops were deployed along the rear side for protection. The defence became fully integrated with command of artillery at
3096-441: A position from which the French could not retreat, for reasons of strategy and national pride and thus trap the French. The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris. Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 5–6 kilometres (3–4 mi) to concentrate artillery firepower and to prevent
3268-399: A problem. This can be avoided by having shield-armed soldiers stand close together, side-by-side, each protecting both themselves and their immediate comrades, presenting a solid shield wall to the enemy. The opponents for these first formations, the close-combat infantry of more tribal societies , or any military without regular infantry (so called " barbarians ") used arms that focused on
3440-440: A return to body armour for infantry, though the extra weight is a notable burden. In modern times, infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including military gas masks , counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Early crew-served weapons were siege weapons , like
3612-441: A single day in the history of the British Army, about 57,000. The Verdun lesson learnt, the entente tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and until September, German aircraft were swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the entente air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat. After regrouping,
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#17328512692493784-501: A six-day bombardment and advanced 5 kilometres (3 mi) to capture Vimy Ridge. German reinforcements counter-attacked and pushed the French back towards their starting points because French reserves had been held back and the success of the attack had come as a surprise. By 15 May the advance had been stopped, although the fighting continued until 18 June. In May the German Army captured a French document at La Ville-aux-Bois describing
3956-573: A very high degree of defense. According to two prominent historians: Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line, named the Noyon salient after the French town at the maximum point of the German advance near Compiègne . Joffre's plan for 1915 was to attack the salient on both flanks to cut it off. The Fourth Army had attacked in Champagne from 20 December 1914 – 17 March 1915 but
4128-493: A week-long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks. The offensive proceeded poorly as the French troops, with the help of two Russian brigades , had to negotiate rough, upward-sloping terrain in extremely bad weather. Planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line. Secrecy had been compromised and German aircraft gained air superiority, making reconnaissance difficult and in places,
4300-463: Is personal armour . This includes shields , helmets and many types of armour – padded linen , leather, lamellar , mail , plate , and kevlar . Initially, armour was used to defend both from ranged and close combat; even a fairly light shield could help defend against most slings and javelins, though high-strength bows and crossbows might penetrate common armour at very close range. Infantry armour had to compromise between protection and coverage, as
4472-419: Is a specialization of military personnel who engage in warfare combat . Infantry generally consists of light infantry , irregular infantry , heavy infantry , mountain infantry , motorized infantry , mechanized infantry , airborne infantry , air assault infantry , and naval infantry . Other types of infantry, such as line infantry and mounted infantry , were once commonplace but fell out of favor in
4644-687: Is first noted in Egyptian records of the Battle of Kadesh ( c. 1274 BC ). Soldiers were grouped into units of 50, which were in turn grouped into larger units of 250, then 1,000, and finally into units of up to 5,000 – the largest independent command. Several of these Egyptian "divisions" made up an army, but operated independently, both on the march and tactically, demonstrating sufficient military command and control organisation for basic battlefield manoeuvres. Similar hierarchical organizations have been noted in other ancient armies, typically with approximately 10 to 100 to 1,000 ratios (even where base 10
4816-413: The 48th (South Midland) Division on 8 May 1917 and held the line at Épehy before relieving the 20th (Light) Division and holding the line at Havrincourt , north of Epéhy, from 23 May 1917. Its infantry was relieved by the 58th (2/1st London) Division on 8 July 1917 but its divisional artillery remained in the line in support of 58th and then 9th (Scottish) Division at Havrincourt Wood. It moved to
4988-622: The 53rd (Welsh) Division commanded by Dallas. The two other Territorial infantry divisions, the 52nd at Rafa and the 54th (East Anglian) Division ordered out to Romani from the Suez Canal, were put directly under General Dobell commander of Eastern Force. The 42nd Division departed Egypt early in February 1917. The division moved to France and joined 3 Corps in the Fourth Army in March 1917. It relieved
5160-458: The 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division . The divisional artillery rejoined and it held the line at Nieuport . On 29 November 1917 it relieved the 25th Division and held the line at Givenchy on the La Bassée sector. It constructed fortifications according to the new British defensive doctrine of "defended localities" in anticipation of major German attack. Private Walter Mills of C Company,
5332-574: The Australian Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades in a pursuit of the enemy. The 42nd Division was not prepared for the conditions they found in the Sinai desert. They had not been trained to operate in heavy sand in mid summer heat, and with insufficient water, extreme distress and tragedy followed. The mounted troops alone, were unable to stop the enemy making a disciplined withdrawal to water at Katia and to fall back in good order,
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5504-594: The Battle of Mons . In the former battle the French Fifth Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day. A general entente retreat followed, resulting in more clashes at the Battle of Le Cateau , the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin (also called the First Battle of Guise). The German Army came within 70 km (43 mi) of Paris but at
5676-521: The Egyptian Camel Transport Corps , worked to transport provisions and water to the 125th and 127th brigades. They recorded what they saw of these terrible days. Nearly 50 years after serving with the 42nd Division in the Sinai, one veteran, gunner J. Thompson, confessed that the "sight of a leaking tap" made him "squirm". By December 1916, the 42nd Division was furnishing units to protect the lines of communication at Salmana, Abu Tilul and
5848-563: The First Battle of the Marne (6–12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies, ending the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German retirement,
6020-583: The French Army and trap it on the German border. Belgian neutrality had been guaranteed by Britain under the Treaty of London, 1839 ; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at midnight on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914. Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium
6192-536: The German Army invaded France , as the division moved into the front line on the River Escaut . On 17 May, Brigadier John Smyth 's 127th Brigade was detached to join "Mac Force", under Major General Noel Mason-MacFarlane , temporarily leaving the division with two brigades, returning on 20 May. After the speed of the German advance, the division, along with the rest of the BEF, was forced to retreat to Dunkirk , and
6364-680: The Honourable Artillery Company and the Yeomanry . On formation, the TF contained 14 infantry divisions and 14 mounted yeomanry brigades . One of the divisions was the East Lancashire Division . In peacetime, the divisional headquarters was, from 1910, in the National Buildings at St Mary's Parsonage in Manchester . The division was embodied upon the outbreak of war. The war station
6536-548: The II ANZAC Corps and took the village of Passchendaele on 6 November, despite rain, mud and many casualties. The offensive was costly in manpower for both sides for relatively little gain of ground against determined German resistance but the ground captured was of great tactical importance. In the drier periods, the British advance was inexorable and during the unusually wet August and in the Autumn rains that began in early October,
6708-531: The Ieperlee from Nieuwpoort to Boezinge . Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) occupied a position on the flank, having occupied a more central position. From 19 October until 22 November, the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres , which ended in a mutually-costly stalemate. After the battle, Erich von Falkenhayn judged that it
6880-579: The North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France, the position of which changed little except during early 1917 and again in 1918. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several offensives along this front . The attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. Entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire , and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties during attacks and counter-attacks and no significant advances were made. Among
7052-1133: The Royal Dragoon Guards , Royal Lancers , and King's Royal Hussars . Similarly, motorised infantry have trucks and other unarmed vehicles for non-combat movement, but are still infantry since they leave their vehicles for any combat. Most modern infantry have vehicle transport, to the point where infantry being motorised is generally assumed, and the few exceptions might be identified as modern light infantry . Mechanised infantry go beyond motorised, having transport vehicles with combat abilities, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), providing at least some options for combat without leaving their vehicles. In modern infantry, some APCs have evolved to be infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), which are transport vehicles with more substantial combat abilities, approaching those of light tanks . Some well-equipped mechanised infantry can be designated as armoured infantry . Given that infantry forces typically also have some tanks, and given that most armoured forces have more mechanised infantry units than tank units in their organisation,
42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division - Misplaced Pages Continue
7224-721: The Second Battle of the Somme (1918) including the Battle of Albert (1918) . Their opponent was the 183rd Division . Lance- Sergeant Edward Smith of the 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions in the capture of The Lozenge (Hill 140, a German machine-gun nest) on 21 August and enemy counter-attacks on 22 August. The infantry withdrew for two days rest in Miraumont–Pys area on 25 August 1918. The divisional artillery went into action under heavy fire in support of 63rd (Royal Naval) Division on
7396-867: The Sinai desert and on the Western Front in France and Belgium. Disbanded after the war, it was reformed in the Territorial Army (TA), in the Second World War it served as the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and fought in Belgium and France before being evacuated at Dunkirk . The division was later reformed in the United Kingdom and, in November 1941,
7568-575: The Territorial Force . Lord Kitchener , the Secretary of State for War, described these divisions and regiments of mainly white–collar workers as "a town clerk's army". Their junior officers were trained at the Officer Training Corps set up at the universities and large public schools, such as Eton and Harrow. Kitchener sent these forces to the peripheral campaigns; to the Sudan, Mesopotamia , Egypt and
7740-680: The Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The Western Front was the place where the most powerful military forces in Europe, the German and French armies, met and where the First World War was decided. At the outbreak of the war, the German Army, with seven field armies in the west and one in the east, executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan , bypassing French defenses along the common border by moving quickly through neutral Belgium, and then turning southwards to attack France and attempt to encircle
7912-684: The War Office claimed, with some justification, that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun, despite the entente suffering greater losses. On 6 April the United States declared war on Germany. In early 1915, following the sinking of the Lusitania , Germany had stopped unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing
8084-596: The Ytres sector on 9 July 1917. On 23 August 1917, it joined V Corps in the Fifth Army , although the infantry in Poperinghe area behind Ypres for training. Its divisional artillery entered line immediately in support of the 15th (Scottish) Division near Potijze Chateau. Its infantry relieved the 15th (Scottish) Division in the line to the right of Potijze Road near Frezenberg Ridge at Ypres on 1 September 1917 and on 6 September
8256-442: The ballista , trebuchet , and battering ram . Modern versions include machine guns , anti-tank missiles , and infantry mortars . Beginning with the development the first regular military forces, close-combat regular infantry fought less as unorganised groups of individuals and more in coordinated units, maintaining a defined tactical formation during combat, for increased battlefield effectiveness; such infantry formations and
8428-572: The " Rape of Belgium ." After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the Ardennes , the Germans advanced into northern France in late August, where they met the French Army, under Joseph Joffre , and the divisions of the British Expeditionary Force under Field Marshal Sir John French . A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued, which included the Battle of Charleroi and
8600-484: The 1/10th Manchesters, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for actions at Red Dragon Crater, Givenchy on the night of 10 December 1917. It was relieved by the 55th (West Lancashire) Division on 15 February 1918. It was held in reserve and undertook training at Busnes – Burbure – Fouquieres area, forming part of the I Corps reserve and then the GHQ reserve from 1 March 1918. On 23 March 1918 it joined VI Corps under
8772-470: The 1/5th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his action at Helles on 23 December. The division remained at Gallipoli until the final evacuation of Helles in January 1916 but was severely depleted by casualties and illness. 42nd Division's casualties at Gallipoli were 395 officers and 8152 other ranks killed, wounded and missing. After the evacuation of Gallipoli,
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#17328512692498944-615: The 125th Brigade made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fortified Iberian, Borry and Beck Farms during the Third Battle of Ypres . The divisional infantry were relieved by the 9th (Scottish) Division and retired to Poperinghe area on 18 September 1917. Its divisional artillery remained in the line until 29 September, participated in the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge (20–26 September 1917) and advanced to exposed positions on Frezenberg Ridge on 25 September. On 26 September it relieved
9116-461: The 13-foot-wide (4 m) German tank traps. Special "grapnel tanks" towed hooks to pull away the German barbed wire. The attack was a great success for the British, who penetrated further in six hours than at the Third Ypres in four months, at a cost of only 4,000 British casualties. The advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counter-offensive began on 30 November, which drove back
9288-469: The 1800s with the invention of more accurate and powerful weapons. In English, use of the term infantry began about the 1570s, describing soldiers who march and fight on foot. The word derives from Middle French infanterie , from older Italian (also Spanish) infanteria (foot soldiers too inexperienced for cavalry), from Latin īnfāns (without speech, newborn, foolish), from which English also gets infant . The individual-soldier term infantryman
9460-458: The 42nd Division, commanded by Major General William Holmes , was serving under Western Command with its headquarters stationed in Manchester, and was mobilised for war service. The division, still comprising the 125th , 126th , and 127th Infantry Brigades , was understrength, having sent many of its best officers and men to help create a duplicate formation, the 66th Infantry Division , when
9632-522: The 6th ( Burnley ) battery, and 19th and 20th (Bolton) batteries did not join the division on Gallipoli until 23/24 September, and the 1st/2nd East Lancs Brigade RFA (Manchester Artillery) arrived in Egypt in May from Britain and remained in Egypt. The 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade landed in time to participate in the Second Battle of Krithia on 6 May and the 126th Brigade arrived on 11 May. The entire division
9804-522: The American all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE). Infantrymen are defined by their primary arms – the personal weapons and body armour for their own individual use. The available technology, resources, history, and society can produce quite different weapons for each military and era, but common infantry weapons can be distinguished in a few basic categories. Infantrymen often carry secondary or back-up weapons, sometimes called
9976-509: The Australian and New Zealand contingents before going to Gallipoli . The division was sent to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal against anticipated Turkish attacks . The 15 pounder gun batteries were deployed at key points on the west bank in support of Indian Army and New Zealand troops manning guardposts. The 20th Battery ( Bolton Artillery) fired the division's first artillery rounds of
10148-504: The Battle of the Somme with the Battle of Albert , supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in
10320-602: The British Army Corps, from June known as VIII Corps , at Cape Helles following the failure of the Allies to achieve the anticipated swift success at Gallipoli during April. On 26 May 1915 the division received its number, becoming the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division , and the brigades were also numbered, becoming 125th (1/1st Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade , 126th (1/1st East Lancashire) Brigade and 127th (1/1st Manchester) Brigade . The 4th ( Blackburn ) battery, 1 section of
10492-519: The British in the south and failed in the north. Despite the reversal, the attack was seen as a success by the entente, proving that tanks could overcome trench defences. The Germans realised that the use of tanks by the entente posed a new threat to any defensive strategy they might mount. The battle had also seen the first mass use of German Stosstruppen on the Western front in the attack, who used infantry infiltration tactics to penetrate British defences, bypassing resistance and quickly advancing into
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#173285126924910664-506: The British launched an offensive in Flanders, in part to take the pressure off the French armies on the Aisne, after the French part of the Nivelle Offensive failed to achieve the strategic victory that had been planned and French troops began to mutiny . The offensive began on 7 June, with a British attack on Messines Ridge , south of Ypres, to retake the ground lost in the First and Second battles in 1914. Since 1915 specialist Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been digging tunnels under
10836-419: The British rear. Following the successful entente attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring, before American manpower became overwhelming. On 3 March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have
11008-458: The Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans. This became known to the Royal Flying Corps as Bloody April . The same month, the French Commander-in-chief , General Robert Nivelle, ordered a new offensive against the German trenches, promising that it would end the war within 48 hours. The 16 April attack, dubbed the Nivelle Offensive (also known as the Second Battle of the Aisne ), would be 1.2 million men strong, preceded by
11180-400: The Caucasus, to release Regular British Army soldiers for duty on the Western Front because he thought these amateur soldiers 'might not be able to hold their own with the German Army '. The East Lancashire Division arrived in Egypt on 25 September 1914 and served in the interior, around Cairo (with some elements stationed in Cyprus and the Sudan ) together with some Yeomanry units, and
11352-459: The Cumberland Artillery / 213 Brigade was disbanded and its two howitzer batteries merged into the 18-pounder brigades in accordance with the new artillery brigade philosophy. Existing four-gun, 18-pounder batteries in each of 210, 211 and 212 Brigades were merged into six-gun batteries, and the four brigades replaced by new 210 and 211 Brigades, each with 3 six-gun, 18-pounder batteries and one howitzer battery. Gibbon's divisional history states that
11524-457: The French countered by deploying escadrilles de chasse with superior Nieuport fighters and the air over Verdun turned into a battlefield as both sides fought for air superiority . The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine-day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight-hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. Sporadic French resistance
11696-400: The French trenches. The green-yellow cloud started killing some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic , creating an undefended 3.7-mile (6 km) gap in the entente line. The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening. Canadian troops on the right drew back their left flank and halted the German advance. The gas attack
11868-413: The French were not able to attack in Artois at the same time. The Tenth Army formed the northern attack force and was to attack eastwards into the Douai plain on a 16 km (9.9 mi) front between Loos and Arras. On 10 March, as part of the larger offensive in the Artois region, the British Army fought the Battle of Neuve Chapelle to capture Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions on
12040-401: The German 3rd Guard Infantry Division , the last with assistance of 11 Mk. IV tanks. It then held the line until end of final German assault on 5 April 1918 at Bucquoy and held the line at Bucquoy, Gommecourt , Hébuterne from 6 April 1918. It served with the IV Corps in the Third Army from 21 August 1918 and attacked and advanced Miraumont, across the River Ancre, Pys, Warlencourt during
12212-408: The German alliance), the final lines were occupied with the armies of each nation defending a part of the front. From the coast in the north, the primary forces were from Belgium, the British Empire and then France. Following the Battle of the Yser in October, the Belgian army controlled a 35 km (22 mi) length of West Flanders along the coast, known as the Yser Front , along the Yser and
12384-404: The German front line. On 25 February the German armies west of the line began Operation Alberich a withdrawal to the line and completed the retirement on 5 April, leaving a supply desert of scorched earth to be occupied by the entente. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. The British continued offensive operations as
12556-404: The Germans achieved only costly defensive successes, which led the German commanders in early October to begin preparations for a general retreat. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive. The battle has become a byword among some British revisionist historians for bloody and futile slaughter, whilst the Germans called Passchendaele "the greatest martyrdom of
12728-531: The Germans adopted a new defence-in-depth scheme that consisted of a series of defensive zones and positions with a depth of up to 8.0 km (5 mi). On 25 September, the British began the Battle of Loos , part of the Third Battle of Artois, which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack. The attack was preceded by a four-day artillery bombardment of 250,000 shells and a release of 5,100 cylinders of chlorine gas. The attack involved two corps in
12900-457: The Germans on 20 August. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August. The French deployed five armies on the frontier. The French Plan XVII was intended to bring about the capture of Alsace–Lorraine . On 7 August, the VII Corps attacked Alsace to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive
13072-528: The Great War, and the first of the Territorial Force of the campaign, near El Ferdan on 2 February 1915. The 19th Battery (Bolton Artillery) was in action in support of Indian and New Zealand troops between Tussum and Serapeum on the night and morning of 3–4 February 1915, against the attempted crossing of the canal by the 74th Regiment, Turkish 25th Division . Beginning in early May 1915, the division joined
13244-567: The Lodz offensive in Poland (11–25 November), Falkenhayn hoped that the Russians would be made amenable to peace overtures. In his discussions with Bethmann Hollweg, Falkenhayn viewed Germany and Russia as having no insoluble conflict and that the real enemies of Germany were France and Britain. A peace with only a few annexations of territory also seemed possible with France and that with Russia and France out of
13416-529: The National Reserve and other re-enlistments. The 'home service' men formed the cadre of duplicate units, intended to train the rush of volunteers at the drill halls. These would form the divisional reserve, and later become the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division . In 1914, the East Lancashire Division was one of 14 infantry divisions and 55 mounted regiments, called the Yeomanry , that made up
13588-660: The New Zealand Division in line of attack on eastern edge of Forest of Mormal and attacked and advanced to Hautmont in the Arrondissement of Avesnes-sur-Helpe on 6 November 1918. It was standing fast on line Maubeuge – Avesnes-sur-Helpe Road when the Armistice of 11 November 1918 came into force. The infantry were equipped with the obsolescent Long Magazine Lee–Enfield (MLE) rifle from embarkation in 1914 until arrival in France in March 1917, when they were re-equipped with
13760-455: The Swiss, English, Aragonese and German, to men-at-arms who went into battle as well-armoured as knights, the latter of which at times also fought on foot. The creation of standing armies —permanently assembled for war or defence—saw increase in training and experience. The increased use of firearms and the need for drill to handle them efficiently. The introduction of national and mass armies saw an establishment of minimum requirements and
13932-443: The United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front. The submarine and surface ships had
14104-497: The Western Front was against the French near the Belgian town of Ypres . The Germans had already deployed gas against the Russians in the east at the Battle of Humin-Bolimów . Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg , commander of the 4th Army planned an offensive at Ypres, site of the First Battle of Ypres in November 1914. The Second Battle of Ypres , April 1915,
14276-427: The above occurred on paper on Christmas Day 1916, when the division was on manoeuvres at Al Mazar, and the reorganization actually occurred in February 1917 on return to the canal zone. Hence, from February 1917 to 11 November 1918, the divisional artillery consisted of 210 and 211 Brigades, each with 3 six-gun batteries of 18-pounders (A,B,C) and one battery of four 4.5-inch howitzers (D). Formed 23 February 1918 from
14448-605: The afternoon with seven tanks and 300 infantry from Logeast Wood to delay the German VI Reserve Corps on 25 March 1918. The 10th Manchesters repelled eight attacks by the German 2nd Guard Reserve Division , at Ervillers. It retired the Ervillers – Bucquoy area on 26 March 1918. Together the 42nd and 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division held the Rossignol Wood–Bucquoy sector under heavy shelling against six attacks by
14620-443: The arms they used developed together, starting with the spear and the shield. A spear has decent attack abilities with the additional advantage keeping opponents at distance; this advantage can be increased by using longer spears, but this could allow the opponent to side-step the point of the spear and close for hand-to-hand combat where the longer spear is near useless. This can be avoided when each spearman stays side by side with
14792-401: The battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August, General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely and instead, switched tactics to a series of small unit actions. The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with
14964-549: The battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only 8 kilometres (5 mi) and failed to reach the original objectives. The British had suffered about 420,000 casualties and the French around 200,000. It is estimated that the Germans lost 465,000, although this figure is controversial. The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics; despite
15136-411: The carrying burden is spread across several infantrymen. In all, this can reach 25–45 kg (60–100 lb) for each soldier on the march. Such heavy infantry burdens have changed little over centuries of warfare; in the late Roman Republic, legionaries were nicknamed " Marius' mules " as their main activity seemed to be carrying the weight of their legion around on their backs, a practice that predates
15308-523: The command of Lieutenant-General Sir Aylmer Haldane in the Third Army , initially in reserve, and then at Ervillers , to defend the line against the German 17th Army under the command of General Otto von Below on the right (i.e. north) wing of the German Spring Offensive ( Kaiserschlacht ) in the First Battle of the Somme (1918) and then the First Battle of Bapaume . It counterattacked in
15480-413: The creeping barrage moved too fast for the French troops. Within a week the French suffered 120,000 casualties. Despite the casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough, Nivelle ordered the attack to continue into May. On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Lacking
15652-523: The cumulative weakening of the armies in the west led to the return of mobility in 1918. The German spring offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that ended the war of the Central Powers against Russia and Romania on the Eastern Front . Using short, intense "hurricane" bombardments and infiltration tactics , the German armies moved nearly 100 kilometres (60 miles) to
15824-533: The day, the 127th Brigade of the 42nd Division took over outpost duties at 1930 hours while the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigades, which had been heavily involved in fighting during the day, withdrew to water and rest at Pelusium. On the second day of battle, 5 August 1916, the 42nd Division along with the 52nd (Lowland) Division , which had fought the previous day from their entrenched position, were ordered to move out to support
15996-463: The distinction between mechanised infantry and armour forces has blurred. The first military forces in history were infantry. In antiquity , infantry were armed with early melee weapons such as a spear , axe , or sword , or an early ranged weapon like a javelin , sling , or bow , with a few infantrymen being expected to use both a melee and a ranged weapon. With the development of gunpowder , infantry began converting to primarily firearms . By
16168-505: The division exchanged some of its units for Regular Army units, as part of official BEF policy, which was, in theory, intended to strengthen the inexperienced TA formations with experienced Regular units but this also had the simultaneous effect of weakening the Regular formations with relatively untrained troops. The 42nd Division transferred from Adam's III Corps to Lieutenant General Michael Barker 's I Corps on 19 May 1940, nine days after
16340-541: The division returned to Egypt, and was renamed the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division. As such it participated in the Battle of Romani and the advance from Romani to Katia . The 42nd Division served at Kantara on the Suez Canal in No. 3 Section of the Suez Canal Defences under General Lawrence until they were entrained for the railhead at Pelusium on the first day of the Battle of Romani on 4 August 1916. On arrival late in
16512-461: The division was placed on a lower establishment, for home defence purposes only. On 1 May 1961, the division was merged with North West District to become 42nd Lancashire Division/ North West District . The Territorial Force (TF) was formed on 1 April 1908 following the enactment of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw.7, c.9) which combined and re-organised the old Volunteer Force ,
16684-464: The divisional level. Members of the German high command viewed this new scheme with some favour and it later became the basis of an elastic defence in depth doctrine against entente attacks. During the autumn of 1915, the " Fokker Scourge " began to have an effect on the battlefront as entente reconnaissance aircraft were nearly driven from the skies. These reconnaissance aircraft were used to direct gunnery and photograph enemy fortifications but now
16856-500: The end of the war. It also inaugurated the cult of the ace , the most famous being Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). Contrary to the myth, anti-aircraft fire claimed more kills than fighters. The final entente offensive of the spring was the Second Battle of Artois , an offensive to capture Vimy Ridge and advance into the Douai plain. The French Tenth Army attacked on 9 May after
17028-455: The enemy to prepare for the main forces' battlefield attack, protecting them from flanking manoeuvers , and then afterwards either pursuing the fleeing enemy or covering their army's retreat. After the fall of Rome, the quality of heavy infantry declined, and warfare was dominated by heavy cavalry , such as knights , forming small elite units for decisive shock combat , supported by peasant infantry militias and assorted light infantry from
17200-494: The entente were nearly blinded by German fighters. However, the impact of German air superiority was diminished by their primarily defensive doctrine in which they tended to remain over their own lines, rather than fighting over entente held territory. In September 1915 the entente launched another offensive, with the French Third Battle of Artois , Second Battle of Champagne and the British at Loos. The French had spent
17372-442: The eponymous Gaius Marius . When combat is expected, infantry typically switch to "packing light", meaning reducing their equipment to weapons, ammunition, and other basic essentials, and leaving other items deemed unnecessary with their transport or baggage train , at camp or rally point, in temporary hidden caches, or even (in emergencies) simply discarding the items. Additional specialised equipment may be required, depending on
17544-400: The existence of any organised military, likely started essentially as loose groups without any organisation or formation. But this changed sometime before recorded history ; the first ancient empires (2500–1500 BC) are shown to have some soldiers with standardised military equipment, and the training and discipline required for battlefield formations and manoeuvres: regular infantry . Though
17716-434: The expected duration of time operating away from their unit's base, plus any special mission-specific equipment. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the entrenching tool —basically a folding spade —which can be employed not only to dig important defences, but also in a variety of other daily tasks, and even sometimes as a weapon. Infantry typically have shared equipment on top of this, like tents or heavy weapons, where
17888-553: The failure on the Shell Crisis of 1915 , despite the early success. All sides had signed the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 , which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare. In 1914, there had been small-scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use various tear gases , which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties but which were also ineffective. The first use of more lethal chemical weapons on
18060-428: The following day. The 127th Brigade, 42nd Division eventually reached Katia the next day, 6 August; 800 men had died in the two-day march from Pelusium Station. The 125th Brigade of the 42nd Division and the 155th , and 157th brigades of the 52nd Division also had many men fall victim to thirst and the blazing sun; the infantry pursuit could not go on. Robert Bethel, Army Service Corps , and McPherson, an officer in
18232-511: The front through Lesdain, Esnes, Beauvois and relieved New Zealand Division, who had established a bridgehead across the River Selle at Briastre . It defended Briastre against German counterattacks and shelling from 12 October 1918 and then advanced across the River Selle to Marou, Virtigneul and Belle Vue Farm during the Battle of the Selle . Private Alfred Robert Wilkinson of the 1/5th Manchesters
18404-889: The individual – weapons using personal strength and force, such as larger swinging swords, axes, and clubs. These take more room and individual freedom to swing and wield, necessitating a more loose organisation. While this may allow for a fierce running attack (an initial shock advantage) the tighter formation of the heavy spear and shield infantry gave them a local manpower advantage where several might be able to fight each opponent. Thus tight formations heightened advantages of heavy arms, and gave greater local numbers in melee. To also increase their staying power, multiple rows of heavy infantrymen were added. This also increased their shock combat effect; individual opponents saw themselves literally lined-up against several heavy infantryman each, with seemingly no chance of defeating all of them. Heavy infantry developed into huge solid block formations, up to
18576-493: The intervals when the blades of the propeller are out of the line of fire. This advance was quickly ushered into service, in the Fokker E.I ( Eindecker , or monoplane, Mark 1), the first single seat fighter aircraft to combine a reasonable maximum speed with an effective armament. Max Immelmann scored the first confirmed kill in an Eindecker on 1 August. Both sides developed improved weapons, engines, airframes and materials, until
18748-422: The introduction of special troops (first of them the engineers going back to medieval times, but also different kinds of infantry adopted to specific terrain, bicycle, motorcycle, motorised and mechanised troops) culminating with the introduction of highly trained special forces during the first and second World War. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines , are primarily a category of infantry that form part of
18920-510: The line in support of New Zealand Division. On 21 September 1918 it relieved 37th Division east of Havrincourt Wood. On 27 September 1918 it attacked and advanced Havrincourt Wood through the Siegfriedstellung ( Hindenburg Line ) via objectives called the Black, Red, Brown, Yellow and Blue lines, to Welsh Ridge. The Hindenburg Line was attacked in enfilade , or diagonally, as can be seen from
19092-707: The lower classes. Towards the end of Middle Ages, this began to change, where more professional and better trained light infantry could be effective against knights, such as the English longbowmen in the Hundred Years' War . By the start of the Renaissance , the infantry began to return to a larger role, with Swiss pikemen and German Landsknechts filling the role of heavy infantry again, using dense formations of pikes to drive off any cavalry. Dense formations are vulnerable to ranged weapons. Technological developments allowed
19264-402: The main assault and two corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres. The British suffered heavy losses, especially due to machine gun fire during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells. A renewal of the attack on 13 October fared little better. In December, French was replaced by General Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces. Falkenhayn believed that
19436-417: The main enemy lines, using weight of numbers to achieve a decisive victory , and were usually equipped with heavier weapons and armour to fit their role. Light infantry, such as Greek peltasts , Balearic slingers , and Roman velites , using open formations and greater manoeuvrability, took on most other combat roles: scouting , screening the army on the march, skirmishing to delay, disrupt, or weaken
19608-447: The main force of the army, these forces were usually kept small due to their cost of training and upkeep, and might be supplemented by local short-term mass-conscript forces using the older irregular infantry weapons and tactics; this remained a common practice almost up to modern times. Before the adoption of the chariot to create the first mobile fighting forces c. 2000 BC , all armies were pure infantry. Even after, with
19780-578: The map. Many casualties were sustained from machine guns situated in Beaucamps to the right of the division's front during the Battle of the Canal du Nord . Its infantry relieved by New Zealand Division and withdrew to Havrincourt Wood for rest on 29 September 2018. The divisional artillery remained in action in support of the New Zealand Division in the Pursuit to the Selle . On 9 October 1918 its infantry marched up to
19952-454: The means to punish an entire division, its officers did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers. Mutinies occurred in 54 French divisions and 20,000 men deserted. Other entente forces attacked but suffered massive casualties. Appeals to patriotism and duty followed, as did mass arrests and trials. The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches but refused to participate in further offensive action. On 15 May Nivelle
20124-487: The mid 17th century began replacement of the pike with the infantry square replacing the pike square. To maximise their firepower, musketeer infantry were trained to fight in wide lines facing the enemy, creating line infantry . These fulfilled the central battlefield role of earlier heavy infantry, using ranged weapons instead of melee weapons. To support these lines, smaller infantry formations using dispersed skirmish lines were created, called light infantry, fulfilling
20296-595: The mission or to the particular terrain or environment, including satchel charges , demolition tools, mines , or barbed wire , carried by the infantry or attached specialists. Historically, infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease , exposure, exhaustion and privation — often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better infantry equipment to support their health, energy, and protect from environmental factors greatly reduces these rates of loss, and increase their level of effective action. Health, energy, and morale are greatly influenced by how
20468-422: The more deadly phosgene gas in 1915, then the infamous mustard gas in 1917, which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully. Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued. Specialised aeroplanes for aerial combat were introduced in 1915. Aircraft were already in use for scouting and on 1 April, the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy aircraft by using
20640-452: The most costly of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun , in 1916, with a combined 700,000 casualties, the Battle of the Somme , also in 1916, with more than a million casualties, and the Battle of Passchendaele , in 1917, with 487,000 casualties. To break the deadlock of the trench warfare on the Western Front, both sides tried new military technology , including poison gas , aircraft, and tanks . The adoption of better tactics and
20812-723: The naval forces of states and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations , as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations. Air force infantry and base defense forces are used primarily for ground-based defense of air bases and other air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles. These include, among others, Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other airmen in basic ground defense tactics. Infentory Western Front (World War I) Military dead: 1,495,000 1915 1916 1917 1918 Associated articles The Western Front
20984-575: The opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking manoeuvres, known as the Race to the Sea and quickly extended their trench systems from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea . The territory occupied by Germany held 64 percent of French pig-iron production , 24 percent of its steel manufacturing and 40 percent of the coal industry – dealing a serious blow to French industry. On the entente side (those countries opposing
21156-509: The original aim of capturing the ridges east of Ypres then advancing to Roulers and Thourout to close the main rail line supplying the German garrisons on the Western front north of Ypres. If successful the northern armies were then to capture the German submarine bases on the Belgian coast. It was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto the ridges around Ypres, as the unusually wet weather slowed British progress. The Canadian Corps relieved
21328-400: The others in close formation, each covering the ones next to him, presenting a solid wall of spears to the enemy that they cannot get around. Similarly, a shield has decent defence abilities, but is literally hit-or-miss; an attack from an unexpected angle can bypass it completely. Larger shields can cover more, but are also heavier and less manoeuvrable, making unexpected attacks even more of
21500-535: The outskirts of Loupart Wood. It then relieved 63rd Division in the line and resumed its advance on 28 August 1918. It attacked and advanced to Thilloy , Riencourt-lès-Bapaume , Villers-au-Flos , Ytres, across the Canal du Nord to Metz-en-Couture in the Second Battle of the Somme (1918) including the Second Battle of Bapaume . Its infantry relieved by New Zealand Division and moved to rest in Pys-Tholloy area on 6 September 1918. The divisional artillery remained in
21672-408: The possibility of another conflict became obvious. Although war was declared, many of the division's units, widely scattered, were engaged in static defensive duties and guarding vulnerable positions, and so were initially unable to concentrate on training. In late September, the division moved to Northumberland where it came under Northern Command and was able to begin training, which continued into
21844-480: The previous four separate companies. One company was attached to each of the three infantry brigades and one company in Divisional Reserve. The division was disbanded after the war, along with the rest of the Territorial Force . However, it was later reformed in the 1920s as the Territorial Army and the 42nd Division was reconstituted. Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939,
22016-561: The railway station Maadan and took part in a practice attack on 13 December. On 21 December, 42nd and 52nd Divisions marched from Kilo 128 to Bardawil and continued to move eastwards towards Masaid. On 17 January 1917, the 42nd Division was no longer in the Sinai Campaign, having been among the first of the Territorial Force to receive orders for the Western Front . The division was replaced in Desert Column by another Territorial Division,
22188-458: The raising of large numbers of light infantry units armed with ranged weapons, without the years of training expected for traditional high-skilled archers and slingers. This started slowly, first with crossbowmen , then hand cannoneers and arquebusiers , each with increasing effectiveness, marking the beginning of early modern warfare , when firearms rendered the use of heavy infantry obsolete. The introduction of musketeers using bayonets in
22360-503: The ridge and the Third Army to the south achieved the deepest advance since trench warfare began. Later attacks were confronted by German reinforcements defending the area using the lessons learned on the Somme in 1916. British attacks were contained and, according to Gary Sheffield, a greater rate of daily loss was inflicted on the British than in "any other major battle". During the winter of 1916–1917, German air tactics had been improved,
22532-457: The ridge, and about 500 t (490 long tons) of explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the German defences. Following several weeks of bombardment, the explosives in 19 of these mines were detonated, killing up to 7,000 German troops. The infantry advance that followed relied on three creeping barrages which the British infantry followed to capture the plateau and the east side of the ridge in one day. German counter-attacks were defeated and
22704-1041: The same multiple roles as earlier light infantry. Their arms were no lighter than line infantry; they were distinguished by their skirmish formation and flexible tactics. The modern rifleman infantry became the primary force for taking and holding ground on battlefields as an element of combined arms . As firepower continued to increase, use of infantry lines diminished, until all infantry became light infantry in practice. Modern classifications of infantry have since expanded to reflect modern equipment and tactics, such as motorised infantry , mechanised or armoured infantry , mountain infantry , marine infantry , and airborne infantry . Beyond main arms and armour, an infantryman's "military kit" generally includes combat boots , battledress or combat uniform , camping gear , heavy weather gear, survival gear , secondary weapons and ammunition , weapon service and repair kits, health and hygiene items, mess kit , rations , filled water canteen , and all other consumables each infantryman needs for
22876-723: The soldier is fed, so militaries issue standardised field rations that provide palatable meals and enough calories to keep a soldier well-fed and combat-ready. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances, and communication with artillery and other support units. Modern infantry can have GPS , encrypted individual communications equipment, surveillance and night vision equipment, advanced intelligence and other high-tech mission-unique aids. Armies have sought to improve and standardise infantry gear to reduce fatigue for extended carrying, increase freedom of movement, accessibility, and compatibility with other carried gear, such as
23048-457: The south of Ypres, where the 16th (Irish) Division withstood several German gas attacks. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German. French, British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war, developing
23220-476: The southern flank of the Gheluvelt plateau was protected from German observation. On 11 July 1917, during Unternehmen Strandfest (Operation Beachparty) at Nieuport on the coast, the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired a powerful blistering agent Sulfur mustard (Yellow Cross) gas. The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets. Mustard gas
23392-533: The spring, entente commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French Army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the River Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in Picardy began
23564-543: The standard modern Short Magazine Lee–Enfield ( SMLE ). The division comprised three infantry brigades : 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade 126th (East Lancashire) Brigade 127th (Manchester) Brigade Originally, each of the field gun batteries was equipped with four obsolescent BLC 15-pounder field guns (referred to somewhat inaccurately by Ian Hamilton as "relics of South Africa "). They were replaced on 29 February 1916 with modern QF 18-pounder guns handed over by 29th Division in Egypt. In February 1917,
23736-417: The summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography , began on 22 September. The main French assault was launched on 25 September and, at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. Rather than retreating,
23908-441: The summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the rolling barrage , the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) from Fort Douaumont, in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle. The Battle of Verdun—also known as the 'Mincing Machine of Verdun' or 'Meuse Mill' —became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. In
24080-419: The terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, once the British war economy produced sufficient equipment and weapons, the army made the platoon the basic tactical unit, similar to the French and German armies. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men)
24252-464: The time of Napoleonic warfare , infantry, cavalry and artillery formed a basic triad of ground forces, though infantry usually remained the most numerous. With armoured warfare , armoured fighting vehicles have replaced the horses of cavalry, and airpower has added a new dimension to ground combat, but infantry remains pivotal to all modern combined arms operations. The first warriors, adopting hunting weapons or improvised melee weapons, before
24424-445: The time of the musket, the dominance of firepower shifted militaries away from any close combat, and use of armour decreased, until infantry typically went without wearing any armour. Helmets were added back during World War I as artillery began to dominate the battlefield, to protect against their fragmentation and other blast effects beyond a direct hit. Modern developments in bullet-proof composite materials like kevlar have started
24596-414: The trenches in divisional strength until October. The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort, and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts. Despite this, however, their presence provided a much-needed boost to entente morale, with the promise of further reinforcements that could tip the manpower balance towards the entente. In June,
24768-526: The tribal host assembled from farmers and hunters with only passing acquaintance with warfare and masses of lightly armed and ill-trained militia put up as a last ditch effort. Kushite king Taharqa enjoyed military success in the Near East as a result of his efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running. In medieval times the foot soldiers varied from peasant levies to semi-permanent companies of mercenaries, foremost among them
24940-416: The war by negotiated settlements, Germany could concentrate on Britain and fight a long war with the resources of Europe at its disposal. Hindenburg and Ludendorff continued to believe that Russia could be defeated by a series of battles which cumulatively would have a decisive effect, after which Germany could finish off France and Britain. Trench warfare in 1914, while not new, quickly improved and provided
25112-457: The war." On 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack and the first attack using predicted artillery-fire (aiming artillery without firing the guns to obtain target data) at the Battle of Cambrai . The entente attacked with 324 tanks (with one-third held in reserve) and twelve divisions, advancing behind a hurricane bombardment, against two German divisions. The machines carried fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and
25284-596: The weapon speciality; examples of infantry units that retained such names are the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Grenadier Guards . Dragoons were created as mounted infantry , with horses for travel between battles; they were still considered infantry since they dismounted before combat. However, if light cavalry was lacking in an army, any available dragoons might be assigned their duties; this practice increased over time, and dragoons eventually received all
25456-452: The weapons and training as both infantry and cavalry, and could be classified as both. Conversely, starting about the mid-19th century, regular cavalry have been forced to spend more of their time dismounted in combat due to the ever-increasing effectiveness of enemy infantry firearms. Thus most cavalry transitioned to mounted infantry. As with grenadiers, the dragoon and cavalry designations can be retained long after their horses, such as in
25628-520: The west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central Powers would attack elsewhere. During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a fortification behind the Noyon Salient that would be called the Hindenburg Line, using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915, including the use of Eingreif divisions . This
25800-470: The west, the deepest advance by either side since 1914, but the success was short-lived. The unstoppable advance of the entente armies during the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918 caused a sudden collapse of the German armies and persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable. The German government surrendered in the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , and the terms of peace were settled by
25972-456: The winter. In January 1940, the division moved to Wiltshire , coming under Southern Command and continued training in order to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. By late March, training had progressed sufficiently and, in mid-April, the division crossed over to France, coming under the control of General Headquarters (GHQ) BEF, before being assigned to Lieutenant General Ronald Adam 's III Corps on 29 April. While there,
26144-455: The year before, assumed command from Major General Willcox, upon the latter's promotion to command I Corps , and, after further training, which included numerous large-scale exercises , on 23 October, the 42nd Division transferred again to Northern Command and, five days later, Major General Miles Dempsey assumed command from Major General Miles, who was posted to the 56th (London) Infantry Division as its GOC. Infantry Infantry
26316-473: Was evacuated from Dunkirk on 31 May/1 June, having suffered significant casualties. Around this time the 42nd Division gained its first and only Victoria Cross (VC) of the Second World War, belonging to Captain Marcus Ervine-Andrews of the 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment , of the 126th Brigade. In addition to being one of the first VCs won by the British Army during the Second World War, he
26488-597: Was also the first Irishman to be awarded the medal during the war. The next few months for the division were spent in England, being re-equipped and reformed, along with anti-invasion duties in the event of a German invasion . Due to the heavy casualties sustained in France, the division absorbed thousands of conscripts as replacements. The division was stationed initially near Middlesbrough , Yorkshire under Northern Command, and in mid-June Major General Holmes, who had been General Officer Commanding (GOC) for over two years,
26660-403: Was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions on 20 October 1918 at Marou. The division's opponent in these actions was the 25th Division . It was relieved by New Zealand Division on 24 October 1918 and withdrew to Beauvois for a rest. It then moved up though Le Quesnoy and Forêt de Mormal in support of the advance of the 37th Division and New Zealand Division on 3 November 1918. It relieved
26832-704: Was converted into the 42nd Armoured Division , which was disbanded in October 1943 without serving overseas. A 2nd Line duplicate formation, the 66th Infantry Division , was created when the Territorials were doubled in both world wars . The division was disbanded during the war but was reformed in the TA in 1947 after the Second World War. Beckett 2008 says that TA units that were in suspended animation were formally reactivated on 1 January 1947, although no personnel were assigned until commanding officers and permanent staff had been appointed in March and April 1947. From December 1955,
27004-461: Was encountered. The Germans took Fort Douaumont and then reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February. The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme on the west bank of the Meuse which blocked the route to French artillery emplacements, from which the French fired across the river. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After
27176-466: Was given command of X Corps and succeeded as GOC 42nd Division by Major General Henry Willcox . On 4 July, the division came under the command of X Corps and then, on 9 September, moving to East Anglia , IV Corps , commanded by Lieutenant General Francis Nosworthy , under Eastern Command . The corps was intended by General Sir Alan Brooke , the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces , to be used in
27348-433: Was intended to be Ireland; but, due to its pacific state, the intended move did not materialise. After a brief period at their drill halls, the various units proceeded to large tented camps at Turton Bottoms (near Bolton), Chesham (near Bury) and Holingworth Lake, Littleborough (near Rochdale). The personnel were asked to volunteer for overseas service , and the overwhelming majority did so, the deficiencies made up of men from
27520-423: Was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco-British planning. After a two-day bombardment, the Germans released a lethal cloud of 168 long tons (171 t) of chlorine onto the battlefield. Though primarily a powerful irritant, it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure. Being heavier than air, the gas crept across no man's land and drifted into
27692-426: Was intended to shorten the German front, freeing 10 divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from Arras south to St Quentin and shortened the front by about 50 kilometres (30 mi). British long-range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916. The Hindenburg Line was built between 2 mi (3.2 km) and 30 mi (48 km) behind
27864-581: Was involved in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June. The division carried out the Helles diversion at the start of the Battle of Sari Bair in what became known as the Battle of Krithia Vineyard . Captain William Thomas Forshaw of the 1/9th Battalion, Manchester Regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions in this battle from 7 to 9 August. 2nd Lieutenant Alfred Victor Smith of
28036-619: Was launched on 14 August with the First and Second Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine. In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French Third and Fourth Armies advanced toward the Saar and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau but were repulsed. The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after
28208-402: Was no longer possible for Germany to win the war by purely military means and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution. The Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg ; Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg , commanding Ober Ost (Eastern Front high command); and his deputy, Erich Ludendorff , continued to believe that victory was achievable through decisive battles. During
28380-510: Was not coined until 1837. In modern usage, foot soldiers of any era are now considered infantry and infantrymen. From the mid-18th century until 1881, the British Army named its infantry as numbered regiments "of Foot" to distinguish them from cavalry and dragoon regiments (see List of Regiments of Foot ). Infantry equipped with special weapons were often named after that weapon, such as grenadiers for their grenades , or fusiliers for their fusils . These names can persist long after
28552-399: Was not common), similar to modern sections (squads) , companies , and regiments . The training of the infantry has differed drastically over time and from place to place. The cost of maintaining an army in fighting order and the seasonal nature of warfare precluded large permanent armies. The antiquity saw everything from the well-trained and motivated citizen armies of Greece and Rome,
28724-546: Was one of the main theatres of war during the First World War . Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium , then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France . The German advance was halted with the Battle of the Marne . Following the Race to the Sea , both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches , stretching from
28896-436: Was persistent and could contaminate an area for days, denying it to the British, an additional demoralising factor. The entente powers increased production of gas for chemical warfare but took until late 1918 to copy the Germans and begin using mustard gas. From 31 July to 10 November the Third Battle of Ypres included the First Battle of Passchendaele and culminated in the Second Battle of Passchendaele . The battle had
29068-554: Was removed from command, replaced by Pétain who immediately stopped the offensive. The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command, while the British assumed greater responsibility. On 25 June the first US troops began to arrive in France, forming the American Expeditionary Force . However, the American units did not enter
29240-505: Was repeated two days later and caused a 3.1 mi (5 km) withdrawal of the Franco-British line but the opportunity had been lost. The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the entente countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures . An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch 40 km (25 mi) to
29412-417: Was the Battle of Liège , a siege that lasted from 5–16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp , leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels , falling to
29584-411: Was the smallest unit of manoeuvre; less than a year later, the section of ten men would be so. In August 1916 the German leadership along the Western Front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German Army. They decided that the German Army in
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