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76-477: The EECO lasted from about 54 to 49 Ma. The EECO's onset is signified by a major geochemical enrichment in isotopically light carbon, commonly known as a negative δ C excursion, that demarcates the hyperthermal Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3). Following some climate models , the EECO was marked by an extremely high global mean surface temperature , which has been estimated to be anywhere between 23.2 and 29.7 °C, with

152-570: A MAP of 1100 ± 299 mm, notably drier than the region was during the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum . Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) off of Seymour Island were ~15 °C. The high elevation areas of Asia, Africa , and Antarctica saw elevation dependent warming (EDW), while those in North America and India saw elevation dependent cooling (EDC). The latitudinal climate gradient is generally believed to have been smaller, which

228-477: A biodiversity hotspot from which newly evolved lineages of temperate-adapted plants radiated from following the end of the EECO. The climate was warm enough to allow palms and palm beetles to inhabit upland regions of British Columbia and Washington. Ellesmere Island became inhabited by basal primatomorphs. The leadup to the EECO was marked by an increase in mammal diversity in Wyoming's Bighorn Basin. Northern Yakutia

304-669: A fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at the Guayaquil Conference in Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations. Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho , securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America. In

380-569: A great development after the extinction of the end of the Cretaceous will be strongly affected by the climatic warming of the Paleogene. Temperature increases and induced climate changes modify the flora and the quantities of fodder available for herbivores. This is how a large number of groups of mammals appear at the beginning of the Eocene , about 56 million years ago: Even if the hyperthermal events of

456-454: A long history of colonialism , the overwhelming majority of South Americans speak Spanish or Portuguese , and societies and states are rich in Western traditions . Relative to Africa, Asia, and Europe, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars, although high rates of violent crime remain a concern in some countries. South America occupies the southern portion of

532-653: A part of Oceania, also administered by Chile), the Galápagos Islands (administered by Ecuador , sometimes considered part of Oceania), and Tierra del Fuego (split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administers Fernando de Noronha , Trindade and Martim Vaz , and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago , while the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas ) and South Georgia and

608-481: A site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At

684-670: A subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively, Mediterranean oceanic climate , temperate of

760-585: A sudden warming of the planet on a geologic time scale . The consequences of this type of event are the subject of numerous studies because they can constitute an analogue of current global warming . The first event of this type was described in 1991 from a sediment core extracted from a drilling of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) carried out in Antarctica in the Weddell Sea . This event occurs at

836-517: A switch from dextral to sinistral coiling across the EECO. The euryhaline dinoflagellate Homotryblium became superabundant at the site of Waipara in New Zealand during the early and middle EECO, reflecting the occurrence of significant stratification of surficial waters as well as increased salinity. The EECO caused an increase in chert deposition by way of basin–basin fractionation by deep-sea circulation, causing increased silica concentrations in

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912-1023: Is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere , with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere . It can also be described as the southern subregion of the Americas . South America is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean ; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The continent includes twelve sovereign states : Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Paraguay , Peru , Suriname , Uruguay , and Venezuela ; two dependent territories :

988-515: Is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region), therefore giving the Southern Cone more oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between

1064-460: Is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power. Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America

1140-597: Is dominated by the Andes mountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as the Amazon , Orinoco and Paraná flow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of the Southern Cone located in the middle latitudes . The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of Indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves . Given

1216-595: Is now Colombia. They established the Muisca Confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos , that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimú Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas , and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at

1292-476: Is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including the llama , anaconda , piranha , jaguar , vicuña , and tapir , and to one of the largest known insects in the world, the Titan beetle . The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity , with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth's species . 83% of South America's large mammals ( megafauna ) became extinct at

1368-403: Is recorded in southeastern Australian sediments. The central Tethys in what is now northeastern Italy was a hotspot of coral diversity, with its mesophotic deltaic environment acting as a refugium. At Shatsky Rise, the planktonic foraminifera Morozovella and Chiloguembelina declined in abundance. Acarinina became the dominant planktonic foraminifer in this locality. Morozovella underwent

1444-571: Is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among four subregions : the Andean states , Caribbean South America , The Guianas , and the Southern Cone . Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The Dutch ABC islands ( Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao ),

1520-510: The Altiplano , Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what

1596-572: The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina ( San Andrés Island , Providencia Island , and Santa Catalina Island etc., which are administered by Colombia ) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America. Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are the Chiloé Archipelago and Robinson Crusoe Island (both administered by Chile), Easter Island (culturally

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1672-750: The Atacama Desert ; the wettest place on earth, López de Micay in Colombia; the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest ; the highest capital city, La Paz , Bolivia ; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca ; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica , the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro , Chile. South America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin , and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However,

1748-686: The Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait ) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama . Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the Monte Verde II site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago. From around 13,000 years ago,

1824-619: The Caribbean colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World . Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750,

1900-1000: The Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ; and one internal territory : French Guiana . The ABC islands of the Dutch Caribbean (north of Venezuela in the Leeward Antilles ), Ascension Island (a part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ), Bouvet Island (a dependency of Norway ), Panama , and the Caribbean island country of Trinidad and Tobago may also be considered parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021 has been estimated at more than 434 million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil

1976-465: The Fishtail projectile point style became widespread across South America, with its disappearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna. Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago. By 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along

2052-467: The Fortaleza area, contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt , one of the oldest-known civilizations in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world. Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavín by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at

2128-688: The Maracaibo Lake and the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates an equatorial climate of the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory. The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have

2204-585: The Orinoco Llanos and in the Guianas Plateau , the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, with Chocó in Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas. The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject to extratropical cyclones , and most of

2280-539: The Portuguese Crown abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in colonial Brazil , under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on slave ships , under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in slave markets . After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery

2356-705: The Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil , Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI , proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822, which later became the Empire of Brazil . Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in Bahia , Cisplatina and Pará , independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by

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2432-641: The South American Plate . South America is home to several superlatives, including the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall , Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River ; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth,

2508-588: The Spanish American wars of independence between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists , who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Enlightenment . Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restoration , as the royalists got the upper hand in

2584-582: The benthic foraminifera had gone through the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction that occurred around 66 million years ago without difficulty, the hyperthermic event of the PETM, 10 million years later, decimated them with the disappearance of 30 to 50% of existing species . The warming of surface waters also leads to eutrophication of the marine environment which leads to a rapid increase by positive feedback of CO 2 emissions. Mammals that experienced

2660-712: The native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, enslaved Africans , who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore,

2736-676: The Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border , although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal . Geopolitically and geographically, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America . Almost all of mainland South America sits on

2812-666: The Argentine Patagonia is desert . In the Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In the semiarid coast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime. Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as

2888-726: The Breton type and, already in Tierra del Fuego , cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone , South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. In

2964-598: The EECO by enabling high rates of organic carbon burial in lacustrine settings. The EECO was preceded by a major long-term warming trend in the Late Palaeocene and Early Eocene . It was initiated by a series of intense hyperthermal events in the Early Eocene, including Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2) and ETM3. The emplacement of the Pana Formation, a volcanic rock formation in southern Tibet that may represent

3040-399: The EECO fostered extensive floral diversification and increased habitat complexity in North American terrestrial biomes. The hot, humid conditions of the EECO may have facilitated the evolution of epiphytic bryophytes, with the oldest member of Lejeuneaceae being described from fossils from the Cambay amber dating back to the EECO. The Okanagan Highlands in British Columbia and Washington became

3116-498: The EECO has been used as an analogue for high-end projections of the Earth's future climate that would result from humanity's burning of fossil fuels. Based on the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) emission scenario, by 2150 CE, the climates across much of the world would resemble conditions during the EECO. One scenario of Lee et. al. (2021) suggests that conditions comparable to EECO could occur by 2300 CE. Hyperthermal event A hyperthermal event corresponds to

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3192-419: The North Atlantic which in turn resulted in direct precipitation of silica as well as its absorption by clay minerals. The Equatorial Pacific displays extensive chert deposits laid down during the EECO. The EECO was also marked by enhanced glauconite deposition. Because the p CO 2 values of the EECO could potentially be reached if anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated for three centuries,

3268-517: The PETM event remains the most studied of the hyperthermic events. Other hyperthermic events occurred at the end of most Quaternary glaciations . Probably the most notable of these is the abrupt warming marking the end of the Younger Dryas , which saw an average annual temperature rise of several degrees in less than a century. While the consequences of these hyperthermic events are now well studied and known, their causes are still debated. Two main tracks, possibly complementary, are mentioned for

3344-478: The Paleogene appear extremely brutal on the geologic time scale (in a range of a few thousand years for an increase of the order of 5 °C), they remain significantly longer than the durations envisaged in the current models of global warming of anthropogenic origin. The various studies of hyperthermal events insist on the phenomena of positive feedbacks which, after the onset of a warming, accelerate it considerably. South America South America

3420-447: The South Sandwich Islands ( biogeographically and hydrologically associated with Antarctica) have been administered as two British Overseas Territories under the Crown , whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina . An isolated volcanic island on the South American Plate , Ascension Island is geologically a part of South America. Administered as a dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ,

3496-830: The Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church 's evangelization in Quechua , Aymara , and Guaraní actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought

3572-483: The Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil . Napoleon captured King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began

3648-423: The United Kingdom. The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the Republic of Entre Ríos and

3724-407: The boundary of the Paleocene and Eocene epochs approximately 56 million years ago. It is now called the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this event, the temperature of the oceans increased by more than 5 °C in less than 10,000 years. Since this discovery, several other hyperthermal events have been identified in this lower part of the Paleogene geological period : But

3800-437: The coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society . South American cultures began domesticating llamas , vicuñas , guanacos , and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods. The rise of plant growing and

3876-461: The concentration in producing one, or few, major export commodities has often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability. This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself. Brazil

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3952-424: The conflict. The independence of South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores . Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towards Lima , the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru . Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized

4028-456: The continents. The δ13C ratios of the carbon isotope contents of the carbonates constituting the shells of the benthic foraminifera have shown an upheaval in the oceanic circulations during the PETM under the effect of global warming. This change took place over a few thousand years. The return to the previous situation, again by negative feedback thanks to the " CO 2 pump" of silicate weathering, took about 200,000 years. While

4104-405: The current Humboldt and Falklands . The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards the Antilles , where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream . South America

4180-427: The end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of the Quaternary extinction event , among the highest of any continent, with the casualties including saber-toothed cats , ground sloths , glyptodonts , gomphotheres , the equines Hippidion and Equus neogeus , and all remaining South American native ungulates . South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing

4256-502: The great city of Cusco , the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu , and "the land of the four regions", in Quechua , the Inca Empire was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system . Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming

4332-402: The increase in CO 2 dissolved in seawater, the oceans are acidifying. This results in a dissolution of the carbonates; global sedimentation becomes essentially clayey. This process takes place in less than 10,000 years while it will take about 100,000 years for the carbonate sedimentation to return to its pre-PETM level mainly by CO 2 capture through greater silicate weathering on

4408-410: The initiation of these sudden warmings: Marine warming due to PETM is estimated, for all latitudes of the globe, between 4 and 5 °C for deep ocean waters and between 5 and 9 °C for surface waters. Carbon trapped in clathrates buried in high latitude sediments is released to the ocean as methane ( CH 4 ) which will quickly oxidize to carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ). As a result of

4484-417: The island is geopolitically a part of Africa. All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America. The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the 30° of latitude south , when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude. In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This

4560-487: The islands of Trinidad and Tobago ( Trinidad Island and Tobago Island etc.), the State of Nueva Esparta , and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northern portion of the South American continental shelf and are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in the Caribbean have generally been grouped as a subregion of North America instead. By contrast, Aves Island (administered by Venezuela ) and

4636-466: The land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands , roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time,

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4712-476: The line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors , first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases ( smallpox , influenza , measles , and typhus ) – to which

4788-431: The mean estimate being around 27.0 °C. In North America , the mean annual temperature was 23.0 °C, while the continent's overall mean annual precipitation (MAP) was about 1500 mm. The mean annual temperature range (MATR) of North America may have been as low as 47 °C or as high as 61 °C, while the MATR of Asia was anywhere from 51 to 60 °C. The Okanagan Highlands had a moist mesothermal climate, with bioclimatic analysis of

4864-402: The mid-17th century. It became a Dutch colony in 1667. The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the slave trade . European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain

4940-447: The observed hothouse conditions of the EECO, although geochemical proxies suggest only 700-900 ppm. Stomatal density in Gingko leaves suggests p CO 2 was over twice that of preindustrial levels. Additionally, methane concentrations in the Early Eocene may have been significantly higher than in the present day. The nature of the hydrological cycle during the EECO is controversial. Evidence from German peat bogs suggests that it

5016-412: The product of a supereruption , has also been proposed as a source of excess carbon flux into the atmosphere that drove the EECO. Other research attributes the elevated greenhouse gas levels to increased generation of petroleum in sedimentary basins and enhanced ventilation of marine carbon. The final phase of the Angiosperm Terrestrial Revolution occurred during the EECO. The supergreenhouse climate of

5092-558: The region yielding estimates of a mean annual temperature (MAT) of 12.7-16.6 °C, a cold month mean temperature (CMMT) of 3.5-7.9 °C, and a MAP of 103-157 cm. Clumped isotope measurements from the Green River Basin and the Bighorn Basin confirm a high seasonality of temperature, contradicting climatological predictions of an equable climate under greenhouse conditions. Lake temperatures in the Green River Formation ranged from 28 °C to 35 °C, with lacustrine photic zone euxinia being prevalent. Sediments from San Diego County, California record

5168-421: The subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations was Caral–Supe , on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in

5244-411: The subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502. The main destinations of this phase were

5320-517: The western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyana

5396-408: Was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. The European Peninsular War (1807–14), a theater of the Napoleonic Wars , changed the political situation of

5472-665: Was a useful form of agriculture. The Mapuche in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years. In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas , by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all

5548-617: Was covered in mangroves. Mongolia witnessed a humidification event that transformed it from a shrubland into a forest and significantly reducing local wildfire incidence. In South America , the EECO coincided with the Itaboraian South American Land Mammal Age . Cingulates diversified over the course of the EECO. The northern margins of the Australo-Antarctic Gulf, then located at 60-65 °S, were covered in wet-tropical lowland vegetation. Nypa pollen

5624-477: Was highly variable, with alternations between aridity and humidity. Hydroclimatic variability in the Gonjo Basin was predominantly controlled by orbital eccentricity cycles. Evidence from North America, in contrast, suggests that the hydrological cycle was enhanced during the EECO, although it remained relatively stable, unlike during the earlier hyperthermals, and that the stable hydroclimate may ultimately have ended

5700-606: Was initially colonized by the Dutch before coming under British control , though there was a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars when it was occupied by the French . The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then settled by the English in

5776-416: Was mainly the result of a decrease in albedo differences across Earth's surface. Although SSTs are often believed to have had a shallow latitudinal temperature gradient, this is likely to be an artefact of burial-induced oxygen isotope reequilibration in fossilised benthic foraminifera. Climate modelling simulations point to a carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere of about 1,680 ppm to reproduce

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