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63-421: EAAK consists of several schemas (special term to define an independent, direct democratic collectiveness). Each EAAK schema has a relevant independence of organisation, political decision-making and activity. All schemas co-ordinate in a regularly organised co-ordinating assembly (twice a year), while local gatherings take place time by time. A basic political choice of a schema , which separates it from

126-422: A trilemma due to the presence of three desirable characteristics of an ideal system of direct democracy, which are challenging to deliver all at once. These three characteristics are participation – widespread participation in the decision-making process by the people affected; deliberation – a rational discussion where all major points of view are weighted according to evidence; and equality – all members of

189-421: A binding popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation. A popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a vote by the citizens. Institutions specify the timeframe for a valid petition and the number of signatures required and may require signatures from diverse communities to protect minority interests. This form of direct democracy effectively grants

252-442: A cost of sacrificing equality, because if widespread participation is allowed, sufficient resources rarely will be available to compensate people who sacrifice their time to participate in the deliberation. Therefore, participants tend to be those with a strong interest in the issue to be decided and often will not therefore be representative of the overall population. Fishkin instead argues that random sampling should be used to select

315-513: A few other nations. Kobach states at the end of his book, "Too often, observers deem Switzerland an oddity among political systems. It is more appropriate to regard it as a pioneer." Finally, the Swiss political system, including its direct democratic devices in a multi-level governance context, becomes increasingly interesting for scholars of European Union integration. In the New England region of

378-476: A form of demonstration against the government, induced changes in educational laws (including constitutional reforms). In 2016, EAAK collaborated with the left-wing student organisations AREN and ARDIN . Non-representative action : EAAK groups generally object to their representation in school administration councils. They participate collectively as a group in the administration council of each school and university. They also refuse to accept decision-making in

441-608: A form of indirect initiative. A deliberative referendum is a referendum that increases public deliberation through purposeful institutional design. Power of recall gives the public the power to remove elected officials from office before the end of their designated standard term of office. Mandatory referendums correspond to majority rule while optional referendums and popular initiatives correspond to consensus democracy (e.g. Switzerland). One strand of thought sees direct democracy as common and widespread in pre-state societies. The earliest well-documented direct democracy

504-550: A historic independence referendum where an overwhelming majority voted for secession from Sudan, leading to the creation of the Republic of South Sudan as a sovereign nation. In 2015 , Rwanda held a constitutional referendum that allowed President Paul Kagame to potentially remain in power until 2034, raising debates about the balance between stability and democratic principles. In 2023, the Central African Republic held

567-418: A like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation and involves the spirit of party and faction in

630-514: A majority of individuals voting, and also by a majority of cantons. Thus, in Switzerland, a citizen-proposed amendment to the federal constitution (i.e. popular initiative ) cannot be passed at the federal level if a majority of the people approve but a majority of the cantons disapprove. For referendums or propositions in general terms (like the principle of a general revision of the Constitution),

693-705: A majority of those voting is sufficient (Swiss Constitution, 2005). In 1890, when the provisions for Swiss national citizen lawmaking were being debated by civil society and government, the Swiss adopted the idea of double majorities from the United States Congress , in which House votes were to represent the people and Senate votes were to represent the states . According to its supporters, this "legitimacy-rich" approach to national citizen lawmaking has been very successful. Kris Kobach , former Kansas elected official, claims that Switzerland has had tandem successes both socially and economically which are matched by only

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756-601: A network of university schemas . Currently, more than 10 radical left organisations participate in EAAK. Namely: EAAK schemas , based on their independence, retain a level of political freedom from their political co-ordinates. EAAK has played a major role in every youth movement since its creation. Its role was most prominent in the Greek student movement of 2006/2007, when over 400 university faculties in Greece were shut down by students, as

819-509: A new constitution that expanded presidential powers and altered the political structure of the country. In 2016 , Colombia held a peace agreement referendum aimed at ending decades of conflict with FARC guerrillas. The agreement was narrowly rejected, leading to further negotiations. In 2019 , Cuba held a constitutional referendum that adopted a new constitution recognizing private property and introducing presidential term limits, marking significant shifts in its socialist framework. In

882-467: A political parties is the so-called non-representative structure of the schema as well as the importance of consensus when making decisions. More populated schemas might vote. The EAAK was founded in 1990–91, when a large group of Communist Youth of Greece members disagreed with its leadership and split, founding the New Left Current (NAR), which collaborated with ASF (Left Student Rally),

945-456: A representative random sample of people chosen to take part in the discussion. In the definition used by scholars such as James Fishkin , deliberative democracy is a form of direct democracy which satisfies the requirement for deliberation and equality but does not make provision to involve everyone who wants to be included in the discussion. Participatory democracy , by Fishkin's definition, allows inclusive participation and deliberation, but at

1008-412: A small, but still representative, number of people from the general public. Fishkin concedes it is possible to imagine a system that transcends the trilemma, but it would require very radical reforms if such a system were to be integrated into mainstream politics. Democratic schools modeled on Summerhill School resolve conflicts and make school policy decisions through full school meetings in which

1071-459: A valuable experience-base with the national-level constitutional amendment initiative. In the past 120 years, more than 240 initiatives have been put to referendums. Most popular initiatives are discussed and approved by the Parliament before the referendum. Out of the remaining initiatives that go to the referendum, only about 10% are approved by voters; in addition, voters often opt for a version of

1134-438: Is a form of democracy in which the electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected representatives as proxies. This differs from the majority of currently established democracies, which are representative democracies . The theory and practice of direct democracy and participation as its common characteristic constituted the core of the work of many theorists, philosophers, politicians, and social critics, among whom

1197-471: Is a form of direct democracy . Unlike a popular initiative or legislative referendum that allows voters to suggest new legislation, a popular referendum allows them to suggest repealing existing legislation. As with an initiative, a popular referendum is held after a given number of signatures supporting it have been submitted to the authorities; in some cases, such a referendum may also be initiated by regional authorities. Depending on local legislation,

1260-401: Is a type of a referendum that provides a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote ( plebiscite ) on an existing statute , constitutional amendment , charter amendment , or ordinance ; in its minimal form, it simply obliges the executive or legislative bodies to consider the subject by submitting it to the order of the day. It

1323-562: Is fundamentally complemented by its federal governmental structures (in German also called the Subsidiaritätsprinzip ). Most western countries have representative systems. Switzerland is a rare example of a country with instruments of direct democracy (at the levels of the municipalities, cantons , and federal state ). Citizens have more power than in a representative democracy. On any political level citizens can propose changes to

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1386-575: Is said to be the Athenian democracy of the 5th century BC. The main bodies in the Athenian democracy were the assembly , composed of male citizens; the boulê , composed of 500 citizens; and the law courts, composed of a massive number of jurors chosen by lot, with no judges. Ancient Attica had only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were politically active in each year and many of them quite regularly for years on end. The Athenian democracy

1449-713: The United Kingdom held its first EU membership referendum, where 67.2% voted to remain in the European Economic Community , reaffirming the UK’s place in Europe. In 2005 , France held a referendum on the proposed European Constitution , which was rejected by 54.7% of voters, significantly impacting the EU’s plans for deeper integration. In 2014 , Scotland held an independence referendum, with 55.3% voting to remain part of

1512-537: The United States , such a process exists, as of May 2009, in 23 states and one territory: Alaska , Arizona , Arkansas , California , Colorado , Idaho , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , Michigan , Missouri , Montana , Nebraska , Nevada , New Mexico , North Dakota , Ohio , Oklahoma , Oregon , South Dakota , Utah , Washington , Wisconsin , Wyoming and the U.S. Virgin Islands . The popular referendum

1575-554: The constitution , but at least 1,500 citizens must vote affirmative, so referendums to suspend parliament or change the constitution fail if they have low turnout even if the required percentage of total voters is met. The pure form of direct democracy exists only in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus . The Swiss Confederation is a semi-direct democracy (representative democracy with strong instruments of direct democracy). The nature of direct democracy in Switzerland

1638-579: The free software movement to the governance of people, allowing the entire populace to participate in government directly, as much or as little as they please. Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens , comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica , around 600 BC. Athens was one of the first known democracies . Other Greek cities set up democracies, and even though most followed an Athenian model, none were as powerful, stable, or well-documented as that of Athens. In

1701-483: The liberal democratic standpoint, restraining popular influence stonewalls the state of nature , protecting property rights . Adversaries of greater democratization cast doubt on human nature , painting a narrative of misinformation and impulsivity. MAREZ , utilizing sortition , had managed itself successfully prior to being overrun by drug cartels, as did FEJUVE remaining tranquil with self-managed organizations. Although Revolutionary Catalonia had demonstrated

1764-775: The Committee Meetings of the student unions and generally disapprove of the administrative faculty councils, supporting the role of general assemblies. United university degree for all students : One of the main disagreements with other left groups is their support of united academic degrees. They disagree with knowledge specialisation and the split of university study objects. They also oppose to any commercial involvement of corporations within studies and academic research. Massive action : EAAK demonstrate massive actions quite often; such as rallies, sit-ins, occupation of administration offices and/or entire school buildings. Direct democracy Direct democracy or pure democracy

1827-478: The New York Ratifying Convention, Alexander Hamilton was quoted saying "that a pure democracy, if it were practicable, would be the most perfect government. Experience has proved that no position is falser than this. The ancient democracies in which the people themselves deliberated never possessed one good feature of government. Their very character was tyranny; their figure, deformity." Despite

1890-521: The Roman kingdom until after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, it did not embody a purely democratic approach, being made up – during the late republic – of former elected officials, providing advice rather than creating law. The democratic aspect of the constitution resided in the Roman popular assemblies , where the people organized into centuriae or into tribes – depending on

1953-423: The Swiss electorate and cantons, on cantonal/communal levels often any financial decision of a certain substantial amount decreed by legislative and/or executive bodies as well. Swiss citizens vote regularly on any kind of issue on every political level, such as financial approvals of a schoolhouse or the building of a new street, or the change of the policy regarding sexual work, or on constitutional changes, or on

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2016-512: The United Kingdom, maintaining the union between Scotland and the rest of the UK. In 1988 , Chile held a national plebiscite where voters rejected extending General Augusto Pinochet 's rule for another eight years, paving the way for democratic elections and ending the dictatorship. In 1999 , Venezuela held a constitutional referendum under President Hugo Chávez, resulting in the approval of

2079-477: The United States from state to state. Supporters of the popular referendum point out that it is a safeguard against special interests taking over, and protects the rights of minorities. Critics point out that popular referendums have a higher voter turnout by people who have strong feelings about the issue at hand, and as such, it empowers special interests. Thirty countries allow for referendum initiated by

2142-474: The United States, towns in states such as Vermont decide local affairs through the direct democratic process of the town meeting . This is the oldest form of direct democracy in the United States and predates the founding of the country by at least a century. Direct democracy was not what the framers of the United States Constitution envisioned for the nation. They saw a danger in tyranny of

2205-522: The assembly – and cast votes on various matters, including elections and laws, proposed before them by their elected magistrates. Some classicists have argued that the Roman republic deserves the label of "democracy", with universal suffrage for adult male citizens, popular sovereignty, and transparent deliberation of public affairs. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the lex Titia , passed on 27 November 43 BC, which eliminated many oversight provisions. Modern-era citizen-lawmaking occurs in

2268-530: The brother of the tyrant Hippias , was killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton , who were subsequently honored by the Athenians for their alleged restoration of Athenian freedom. The greatest and longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles ; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by an oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War . It was modified somewhat after it

2331-407: The cantons of Switzerland from the 13th century. In 1848 the Swiss added the "statute referendum" to their national constitution, requiring the public to vote on if a constitutional change should occur. They soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliament's laws was not enough. In 1891 they added the "constitutional amendment initiative". Swiss politics since 1891 have given the world

2394-670: The citizen lawmaking was in Pacific States Telephone and Telegraph Company v. Oregon , 223 U.S. 118 in 1912 (Zimmerman, December 1999). President Theodore Roosevelt , in his "Charter of Democracy" speech to the Ohio Constitutional Convention (1912) , stated: "I believe in the Initiative and Referendum, which should be used not to destroy representative government, but to correct it whenever it becomes misrepresentative." In various states, referendums through which

2457-403: The citizens remain the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum (plebiscite), initiative , and recall . The first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation. As of 2019 , thirty countries allowed for referendums initiated by the population on the national level. A compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to

2520-405: The constitution ( popular initiative ) or ask for an optional referendum to be held on any law voted by the federal , cantonal parliament and/or municipal legislative body. The list for mandatory or optional referendums on each political level are generally much longer in Switzerland than in any other country; for example, any amendment to the constitution must automatically be voted on by

2583-537: The democratic process. Also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome , specifically during the Roman Republic , traditionally founded around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire . While the Roman senate was the main body with historical longevity, lasting from

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2646-409: The development of Athenian democracy. Historians differ on which of them was responsible for which institution, and which of them most represented a truly democratic movement. It is most usual to date Athenian democracy from Cleisthenes since Solon's constitution fell and was replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus , whereas Ephialtes revised Cleisthenes' constitution relatively peacefully. Hipparchus ,

2709-458: The direct democracy of Athens, the citizens did not nominate representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf (as in the United States) but instead voted as individuals. The public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire of the comic poets in the theatres . Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508–507 BCE), and Ephialtes (462 BC) all contributed to

2772-471: The direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by California's system). With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Constitutional amendments in Switzerland , Liechtenstein or Uruguay goes through such

2835-549: The feasibility of non-liberal democracy, critics have continued to deride its presumed mobocratic nature, although there are no recorded instances of tyranny of the majority . It is of note that direct democracy's critics have emerged from Hobbesian and liberal philosophy. Popular referendum A popular referendum , depending on jurisdiction also known as a citizens' veto , people's veto , veto referendum , citizen referendum , abrogative referendum , rejective referendum , suspensive referendum , and statute referendum ,

2898-492: The foreign policy of Switzerland, four times a year. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, on 103 federal questions besides many more cantonal and municipal questions. During the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums. In Switzerland , simple majorities are sufficient at the municipal and cantonal level, at the federal level double majorities are required on constitutional issues. A double majority requires approval by

2961-430: The framers' intentions at the beginning of the republic, ballot measures and their corresponding referendums have been widely used at the state and sub-state level. There is much state and federal case law , from the early 1900s to the 1990s, that protects the people's right to each of these direct democracy governance components (Magleby, 1984, and Zimmerman, 1999). The first United States Supreme Court ruling in favor of

3024-465: The initiative rewritten by the government. (See "Direct democracy in Switzerland" below.) Some of the issues surrounding the related notion of a direct democracy using the Internet and other communications technologies are dealt with in the article on e-democracy and below under the heading Electronic direct democracy . More concisely, the concept of open-source governance applies principles of

3087-543: The majority . As a result, they advocated a representative democracy in the form of a constitutional republic over a direct democracy. For example, James Madison , in Federalist No. 10 , advocates a constitutional republic over direct democracy precisely to protect the individual from the will of the majority. He says, Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under

3150-687: The most important are Jean-Jacques Rousseau , John Stuart Mill , and G.D.H. Cole . In direct democracy the people decide on policies without any intermediary or representative, whereas in a representative democracy people vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives. Depending on the particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition , making laws , directly electing or dismissing officials, and conducting trials . Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy . Semi-direct democracies, in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but

3213-481: The necessary and ordinary operations of the government. [...] [A] pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will be felt by a majority, and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party. Hence it is, that democracies have ever been found incompatible with personal security or

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3276-532: The people rule include: The strength of direct democracy in individual countries can be quantitatively compared by the Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index in V-Dem Democracy indices . A higher index indicates more direct democracy popular initiatives and referendums, shown below for individual countries. Only countries with index above 0 are shown. Democratic theorists have identified

3339-429: The popular referendum may be implemented only in a short window of time after the legislation has been passed; in others it may be used to defeat any existing legislation. Specific details on the applicable procedure such as the number of signatures, whether there is a time limit and its duration on when the popular referendum may be passed, and the body to which they must be submitted vary from country to country, and in

3402-554: The population on the national level In Europe the popular referendum (commonly known as abrogative referendum) was first introduced in Switzerland in St. Gallen canton in 1831, and was introduced to the whole country known as the optional referendum . It now exists in Albania , Denmark (since 1953), Italy (since 1970), Malta , Russia and Switzerland (since 1874). In 1975 ,

3465-451: The population on whose behalf decisions are taken have an equal chance of having their views taken into account. Empirical evidence from dozens of studies suggests deliberation leads to better decision making. The most popularly disputed form of direct popular participation is the referendum on constitutional matters. For the system to respect the principle of political equality, either everyone needs to be involved or there needs to be

3528-458: The rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. Other framers spoke against pure democracy. John Witherspoon , one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence , said: "Pure democracy cannot subsist long nor be carried far into the departments of state – it is very subject to caprice and the madness of popular rage." At

3591-480: The term to stress, inter alia , the plebiscitary character of elections, disdain for parliament, the non-toleration of autonomous powers within the government and a failure to attract or suffer independent political minds." Despite being a monarchy, direct democracy is considered to be an engrained element of Liechtensteiner politics . If called for by at least 1,000 citizens, a referendum on any law can be initiated. Referendums can suspend parliament or change

3654-519: The votes of students and staff are weighted equally. The core criticism of direct democracy coincides with democracy's overall criticism. Critics have historically expressed doubts of the populace's capacity of participation, both in terms of numbers and ability, deeming its advocates utopian. Despite this, instances of direct democracy - such as the Petrograd Soviet - lack documented incidents involving participation deficits or mobocracy . From

3717-414: The voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, as in Switzerland . A citizen-initiated referendum, also called an initiative , empowers members of the general public to propose, by petition, specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with other referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: with

3780-413: Was direct not only in the sense that the assembled people made decisions, but also in the sense that the people – through the assembly, boulê, and law courts – controlled the entire political process, and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in public affairs. Most modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system. Moreover, the Athenian democracy

3843-469: Was exclusive. For example, in Athens in the middle of the 4th century there were about 100,000 citizens (Athenian citizenship was limited to men and women whose parents had also been Athenian citizens), about 10,000 metoikoi, or “resident foreigners,” and 150,000 slaves. Out of all those people, only male citizens who were older than 18 were a part of the demos, meaning only about 40,000 people could participate in

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3906-513: Was first introduced in the United States by South Dakota in 1898, and first used in the United States in 1906, in Oregon , two years after the initiative was used (in 1904, also in Oregon). In 1992 , South Africa held a historic referendum in which white voters supported ending apartheid, paving the way for democratic reforms and multiracial governance in the country. In 2011 , South Sudan held

3969-551: Was restored under Eucleides ; the most detailed accounts are of this 4th-century modification rather than of the Periclean system. It was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but the extent to which they were a real democracy is debatable. Sociologist Max Weber believed that every mass democracy went in a Caesarist direction. Professor of law Gerhard Casper writes, "Weber employed

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