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103-579: The formal production of Dán Direach by trained poets came to an end with the destruction of Irish Gaelic society due to the Plantations of Ireland in the 17th century. However, the forms continued in folk memory as chants, prayers and informally delivered lays that continued to be recited in Gaelic speaking areas of Ireland and Scotland into the early 20th century. Gaelic poetical culture may have continued to influence Caribbean and African American forms of singing in

206-591: A land grant from two Narragansett sachems , Canonicus and Miantonomi . The settlers in Providence Plantations adopted a covenant which stressed the separation of religious and civil affairs . That plantation was part a larger series of English plantations in New England . These plantations played a large role in developing the Northern economy in opposing lines from the plantation -based economy of

309-565: A considerable area after the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Prior to its conquest in the Nine Years War of the 1590s, Ulster was the most Irish-Gaelic part of Ireland and the only province that was completely outside English control. The war, of 1594–1603, ended with the surrender of the O'Neill and O'Donnell lords to the English crown, but it was also a hugely costly and humiliating episode for

412-402: A figure of 4,000 settlers were killed directly; and up to 12,000 may have died of causes also related to disease (always a cause of high fatalities during wartime) or privation after being expelled from their homes. Ulster was worst hit by the wars, with massive loss of civilian life and mass displacement of people. The atrocities committed by both sides further poisoned the relationship between

515-565: A fortune off the plantations. Businessman Robert Payne advocated for settlers to come to the Munster colonies. He bought land holdings in Munster for his venture, recruiting 25 business partners and partnering with industrialist Francis Willoughby . Willoughby was a sleeping partner in a project aimed at establishing an ironworks in the Munster colonies. Daniel Gookin, a Munster colonist, sold his lands in Carrigaline and his company in Munster to

618-530: A joint "British", i.e. English and Scottish, venture to pacify and civilise Ulster. It was agreed that at least half of the settlers would be Scots. Six counties made up his official plantation of Ulster: The plan was determined by two factors: first, the Crown wanted to protect the settlement from being destroyed by rebels like the Munster plantation. So rather than settling the planters in isolated pockets of land confiscated from convicted rebels, they confiscated all of

721-562: A land-owning class of British Protestants was created in Ireland, and they ruled over mostly Irish Catholic tenants. A minority of the "Cromwellian" landowners were Parliamentarian soldiers or creditors. Most were pre-war Protestant settlers, who took the opportunity to obtain confiscated lands. Before the wars, Catholics had owned 60% of the land in Ireland. During the Commonwealth period, Catholic landownership fell to 8–9%. After some restitution in

824-534: A minimum of 48 adult males (including at least 20 families), who had to be English-speaking Protestants. However, veterans of the war in Ireland (known as Servitors ) led by Arthur Chichester , successfully lobbied for land grants of their own. Since these former officers did not have enough private capital to fund the colonisation, their involvement was subsidised by the City of London (the financial sector in London). The city

927-618: A minority in the Irish Parliament , as a result of the creation of "pocket boroughs" (where Protestants were in the majority) in planted areas. In 1625, they gained a temporary halt to land confiscations by agreeing to pay for England's war with France and Spain. In addition to the plantations, thousands of independent settlers arrived in Ireland in the early 17th century, from the Netherlands and France as well as Britain. Many of them became chief tenants of Irish land-owners; others set up in

1030-410: A peaceful and reliable possession, without risk of rebellion or foreign invasion. Wherever the policy of surrender and regrant failed, land was confiscated and English plantations were established. To this end, two forms of plantation were adopted in the second half of the 16th century. The first was the "exemplary plantation", in which small colonies of English would provide model farming communities that

1133-684: A policy of constructing a chain of fortifications and castles in North Wales to control the native Welsh population ; the Welsh were only permitted to enter the fortifications and castles unarmed during the day and were forbidden from trading. In Ireland, during the Tudor and Stuart eras the English Crown initiated a large-scale colonization of Ireland, in particular the province of Ulster , with Protestant settlers from Great Britain . These plantations led to

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1236-524: A series of military fortifications. In 1568–1569, Warham St Leger and Richard Grenville tried to establish a small English joint stock colony in the barony of Kerrycurrihy , by Cork Harbour , on land leased from the Earl of Desmon. They then proposed establishing larger corporate colonies in late 1568 creating a consortium of English merchants to fund a colony in Baltimore, west Co. Cork, mainly for exploiting

1339-537: A wider meaning. Comhardadh slán means 'perfect rhyme' and comhardadh briste means 'broken rhyme'. Comhardadh could be final, internal, or aicill . Aicill technique rhymes the final stressed word of one line with the next-to-last unstressed word in the next line. The final rhyming word is called rinn , 'tip' and the unstressed rhyming word airdrinn , 'attention-tip'. A word can also rhyme with two words instead of just one. The standard forms of rhyme were recognised. Amus meant vowel rhyming or assonance , in which

1442-490: The 1641 Rebellion , and the principal reason why it was joined by Ireland's wealthiest and most powerful Catholic families. In October 1641, after a bad harvest and in a threatening political climate, Phelim O'Neill launched a rebellion, hoping to rectify various grievances of Irish Catholic landowners. However, once the rebellion was underway, the resentment of the native Irish in Ulster boiled over into indiscriminate attacks on

1545-583: The Anglo-Norman invasion , these immigrants had largely assimilated into Irish culture or were driven off from what little land they controlled by the 15th century, and the direct area controlled by the English Crown had shrunk mostly to an area known as the Pale . Beginning in the 1540's, the Tudor conquest of Ireland began, and roughly a decade later the first English plantations were established by British settlers on Irish soil. These plantations began during

1648-600: The English language to describe the process of colonization before being also used to refer to a colony by the 1610s. By the 1710s, the word was also being used to describe large farms where cash crop goods were produced, typically in tropical regions. The first plantations were established during the Edwardian conquest of Wales and the plantations of Ireland by the English Crown . In Wales , King Edward I of England began

1751-696: The MacMurrough-Kavanagh clan . Since most land-owning families in Ireland had taken their estates by force in the previous four hundred years, very few of them, with the exception of the New English planters, had proper legal titles for them. As a result, in order to obtain such titles, they were required to forfeit a quarter of their lands. This policy was used against the Kavanaghs in Wexford and subsequently elsewhere, to break up Catholic Irish estates (especially

1854-656: The New Model Army were awarded land in Ireland in place of their wages due, which the Commonwealth was unable to pay. Many of these soldiers sold their land grants to other Protestants rather than settle in war-ravaged Ireland, but 7,500 soldiers did settle in Ireland. They were required to keep their weapons to act as a reserve militia in case of future rebellions. Taken together with the Merchant Adventurers , probably over 10,000 Parliamentarians settled in Ireland after

1957-588: The Restoration Act of Settlement 1662 , it rose to 20% again. In Ulster, the Cromwellian period eliminated those native landowners who had survived the Ulster plantation. In Munster and Leinster, the mass confiscation of Catholic-owned land after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , meant that English Protestants acquired almost all of the land holdings for the first time in these territories. In addition, under

2060-520: The Tudor period , however, Irish culture and language had regained most of the territory initially lost to the Anglo-Normans: "even in the Pale, all the common folk ... for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language". At a higher social level, there was intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords. To varying degrees inside and especially outside of

2163-553: The demography of Ireland becoming permanently altered, creating a new Protestant Ascendancy which would dominate Irish society for the next few centuries. In North America , during the period of European colonization in the early modern period , several plantations were established by English settlers , including in Virginia , Rhode Island , and elsewhere throughout the Thirteen Colonies . Other European colonial powers used

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2266-663: The 12th century. The Ó Dálaigh family of bards were considered to be the foremost exponents of Dán Direach throughout the later Medieval period. An eyewitness account "The Action and Pronunciation of the Poems, in the Presence of the Maecenas (Chief), or the principal Person it related to, was perform'd with a great deal of Ceremony, in a Consort of Vocal and Instrumental Musick. The poet himself said nothing, but directed and took care that every body else did his Part right. The Bards having first had

2369-515: The 17th and 18th century when the language was spoken by immigrants in the Caribbean and American south. Many hundreds of poems are still extant as they were collected into poem books called Duanaire by wealthy patrons. Rhyme has an old history of sophisticated development in Ireland. It was not a feature of Classical Greek or Latin verse. There is some reason to believe that Ireland brought developed forms of rhyme into other European cultures through

2472-535: The Anglo-Norman army at Thurles and began making incursions into the Pale itself forcing Henry II to come to talks, the treaty of Windsor was drafted which was agreed upon that the Anglo-Normans would have mostly the Pale but couldn't make incursions into Irish held lands. Henry II would later disavow the treaty he agreed to and made incursions into Irish kingdoms forfeiting his title as lord of Ireland and his right to

2575-517: The Ards with 100 men. They were opposed by the Lord of Clannaboy, Brian McPhelim O'Neill , who complained the grant was illegal. As the English often commandeered Irish church buildings for garrisons, McPhelim burned all church buildings in the Ards to prevent this. The colonists hastily built a fort near Comber , but the plantation fell apart after Smith's son was killed by Irishmen in 1573. The plantation scheme

2678-599: The Commonwealth regime, some 12,000 Irish people were sold into indentured servitude to the Caribbean and North American colonies. Another 34,000 Irish Catholics went into exile on the Continent, mostly in the Catholic countries of France or Spain. Recent research has shown that although the native Irish land-owning class was subordinated in this period, it never totally disappeared. Many of its members found niches in trade or as chief tenants on their families' ancestral lands. For

2781-485: The Composition from him, got it well by Heart, and now pronounc'd it orderly, keeping even Pace with a Harp, touch'd upon that Occasion; no other musical Instrument being allow'd of for the said Purpose than this alone, as being Masculin, much sweeter, and fuller than any other." The training took place in schools under an Ollamh and was long and arduous. Poems were created in the dark while lying down. Traditional payment

2884-750: The Crown's revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Many of the Frenchmen were former soldiers, who had fought on the Williamite side in the Williamite war in Ireland . This community settled mainly in Dublin , as some had already been established as merchants in London. Their communal graveyard can still be seen off St Stephen's Green . The total population of this community may have reached 10,000. The English banned and discouraged

2987-475: The English Earldom of Ulster . It was known as the "Enterprise of Ulster". During the conflict between the English and Shane O'Neill , there were proposals to colonize parts of east Ulster, but Crown support was not forthcoming. Following Shane O'Neill's death, an act of attainder was passed on him for rebellion against the Crown. As O'Neill had claimed lordship over most of Ulster, the act declared most of

3090-414: The English and Scottish planters to arrive in this region. Plantations stayed off the political agenda until the appointment of Thomas Wentworth , a Privy Councilor of Charles I , to the position of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632. Wentworth's job was to raise revenue for Charles and to cement Royal control over Ireland – which meant, among other things, more plantations, both to raise money and to break

3193-486: The English finally subdued the displaced O'Moore clan by massacring most of their fine (or ruling families) at Mullaghmast in Laois, having invited them there for peace talks. Rory Oge O'More , the leader of rebellion in the area, was hunted down and killed later that year. The ongoing violence meant that the authorities had difficulty in attracting people to settle in their new plantation. Settlement ended up clustered around

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3296-597: The English government in Ireland. In the short term the war failed, and generous surrender terms given to the rebels re-granted them much of their former land, but under English law. But when Hugh O'Neill and the other rebel earls left Ireland in the so-called 1607 Flight of the Earls to seek help from the Spanish Crown for a new rebellion, the Lord Deputy Arthur Chichester seized the opportunity to colonise

3399-666: The Gaelic ones) around the country. Following the precedent set in Wexford, small plantations were established in Laois and Offaly , Longford , Leitrim and north Tipperary . In Laois and Offally, the Tudor plantation had consisted of a chain of military garrisons. In the new, more peaceful climate of the 17th century, it attracted large numbers of landowners, tenants and labourers. Prominent planters in Leinster in this period include Charles Coote, Adam Loftus, and William Parsons. In Munster, during

3502-577: The Glens , who asserted they were opposing Essex rather than the Crown. In September 1574, Essex led a military expedition deep into Tyrone, burning crops. That November, Essex's men massacred 200 of McPhelim's company during a parley at Belfast Castle, and Essex then had McPhelim executed for treason. The MacDonnells called in reinforcements from their kinsmen in the Scottish Highlands . In July 1575, Essex sent Francis Drake and John Norris to attack

3605-620: The Irish Catholics were defeated in the Cromwellian conquest of 1652, most remaining Catholic-owned land was confiscated and thousands of English soldiers settled in Ireland. Scottish settlement in Ulster resumed and intensified during the Scottish famine of the 1690s . By the 1720s, British Protestants were the majority in Ulster. The plantations changed the demography of Ireland by creating large communities with British and Protestant identities. The ruling classes of these communities replaced

3708-499: The Irish could emulate and be taxed. The second form set the trend for future English policy in Ireland. It was punitive/commercial in nature, as it provided for the plantation of English settlers on lands confiscated following the suppression of rebellions. The first such scheme was the Plantation of King's County (now Offaly ) and Queen's County (now Laois ) in 1556, naming them after

3811-490: The Irish from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. The plantation of Ulster began in the 1610s, during the reign of James I . Following their defeat in the Nine Years' War, many rebel Ulster lords fled Ireland and their lands were confiscated. This was the biggest and most successful of the plantations and comprised most of the province of Ulster. While the province was mainly Irish -speaking and Catholic ,

3914-402: The Irish, he put into execution clauses of the statute against Irish customs, particularly forbidding the wearing of the native mantle. Plantation (settlement or colony) In the history of colonialism , a plantation was a form of colonization in which settlers would establish permanent or semi-permanent colonial settlements in a new region. The term first appeared in the 1580s in

4017-654: The Irish. The Irish rejected the Laudabiliter The first Plantations of Ireland occurred during the Tudor conquest . The Dublin Castle administration intended to pacify and anglicise Irish territories controlled by the Crown and incorporate the Gaelic Irish aristocracy into the English-controlled Kingdom of Ireland by using a policy of surrender and regrant . The administration intended to develop Ireland as

4120-480: The Kingdom of Ireland in 1542. Gerald of Wales argued that the English crown has the right to rule Ireland because of a mission to civilise a barbarous people. His writings shaped English and European views of Ireland for centuries. He says: The idle woodland people the Irish reject agriculture, cities, the rights and privileges of citizenship and hence civilisation itself, the mission is to civilise and truly Christianise

4223-474: The MacCarthys, appealed the dispossession of their dependants. Other sectors of the plantation were equally chaotic. John Popham imported 70 tenants from Somerset , only to find that the land had already been settled by another undertaker, and he was obliged to send them home. Nevertheless, 500,000 acres (202,343 ha) were planted with English colonists. The Crown hoped that the settlement would attract in

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4326-754: The MacDonnells. This ended with the massacre of 600 MacDonnell men, women and children on Rathlin Island . By this time, Elizabeth had called an end to the scheme. It was a failure which had cost Essex and the Crown dearly. The Munster Plantation of the 1580s was the first mass plantation in Ireland. It was instituted as punishment for the Desmond Rebellions , when the Geraldine Earl of Desmond had rebelled against English interference in Munster . The Desmond dynasty

4429-471: The Munster Plantation include Walter Raleigh , Edmund Spenser , and Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork . The latter especially made huge fortunes out of amassing Irish lands and developing them for industry and agriculture. The Irish Catholic upper classes were unable to stop the continued plantations in Ireland because they had been barred from public office on religious grounds. By 1615 they comprised

4532-494: The Pale . In the 1540s the English Tudor conquest of Ireland began. The first plantations were in the 1550s, during the reign of Queen Mary I , in Laois (' Queen's County ') and Offaly (' King's County '). These plantations were based around existing frontier forts, but they were largely unsuccessful due to fierce resistance from native Irish clans. The next plantations were during the reign of Elizabeth I . In 1568 there

4635-598: The Pale itself. Meaning subsequent claims by the English monarchy to Ireland such as Henry VIII lordship or later kingship were illegitimate Laudabiliter was a decree issued by the Pope that made Ireland's people the subjects of Henry II, however there is some debate on whether the Laudabiliter was legitimate or a forgery. The Laudabiliter could be compared to the Papal Bull "Inter Caetera," issued by Pope Alexander VI, which gave

4738-517: The Pale, the ' Old English ' had integrated into Irish society. Edmund Spenser wrote of the old English : "they are more sharpely to be chastised and reformed … for they are more stubborne, and disobedient to the law and government, than the Irish". English discourse on Ireland largely viewed the Gaelic Irish outside the Pale as savages, and compared them with the Native Americans in 1580. In 1174 Rory O’Connor (Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair) defeated

4841-479: The Spanish the exclusive right to rule the lands discovered by Columbus, making the native Americans their "subjects". Despite this the Laudabiliter had a continuing political relevance into the 16th century. Henry VIII of England was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December 1538, causing his opponents to question his continuing claim to be Lord of Ireland, which was based ultimately on Laudabiliter. Henry established

4944-508: The Welsh public. The plans were ultimately cancelled after social media campaign and petition. The Plantations of Ireland occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries and involved the English Crown confiscating lands owned by the Irish people, starting in the 1550s with Queen Mary I who was Catholic, with British Catholic settlers. Later plantations involved redistributing them to Protestant settlers from Great Britain . Though there had been periodic immigration from Great Britain to Ireland since

5047-518: The area, had traditionally raided the English-ruled Pale around Dublin . The Lord Deputy of Ireland , the Earl of Sussex , ordered that they be dispossessed and replaced with an English settlement. However, the plantation was not a great success. The O'Moores and O'Connors retreated to the hills and bogs and fought a local insurgency against the settlement for much of the following 40 years. In 1578,

5150-506: The best land. This meant that many English and Scottish landowners had to take Irish tenants, contrary to the terms of the Plantation of Ulster. In 1609, Chichester deported 1300 former Irish soldiers from Ulster to serve in the Swedish Army . The attempted conversion of the Irish to Protestantism also had few successes; at first the clerics sent to Ireland were all English speakers, whereas

5253-614: The civil wars. In addition to the Parliamentarians, thousands of Scottish Covenanter soldiers, who had been stationed in Ulster during the war, settled there permanently after its end. Some Parliamentarians had argued that all the Irish should be deported to west of the River Shannon and replaced with English settlers. However, this would have required hundreds of thousands of English settlers willing to come to Ireland, and such numbers of aspirant settlers were never recruited. Rather,

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5356-545: The confiscation of Irish-owned land by the English Crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from Great Britain . The Crown saw the plantations as a means of controlling, anglicising and 'civilising' Gaelic Ireland . The main plantations took place from the 1550s to the 1620s, the biggest of which was the plantation of Ulster . The plantations led to the founding of many towns, massive demographic, cultural and economic changes, changes in land ownership and

5459-477: The defeated rebel lords. However, the settlements were scattered and attracted far fewer settlers than was hoped for. When the Nine Years' War broke out in the 1590s, most of these settlements were abandoned, although English settlers began to return following the war. The plantation of Ulster began in the 1610s, during the reign of James I . Following their defeat in the Nine Years' War, many rebel Ulster lords fled Ireland and their lands were confiscated. This

5562-484: The defence of planted districts from attack. However, the colonial plans were complicated by surveys showing less land available than previously imagined, as well as lawsuits influenced by the earl of Ormond. It was agreed that ninety-one families would be settled on 12,000 acres and further smaller grants of 8,000, 6,000 and 4,000 acres families were to be planted. In 1611 it has been estimated that 94,000 acres originally assigned to undertakers had been reclaimed. Out of

5665-760: The delivery of dán direach. A poem consisted of quatrains called rann (division) the quatrain is divided into two parts called leathrann (half verse/couplet). A single line is called ceathramhain . Whatever sound, syllable or line a poem begins with, it must end on the same. This is called dúnadh (closing). Consonants were divided into hard, soft, light, rough, and strong groups. Strong consonants rhymed with light for example. Vowels were grouped into broad and slender. The broad vowels are a, o, u, á, ó, & ú. The slender vowels are e, i, é & í. Consonants were classed as broad or slender depending on what vowels preceded them. Comhardadh means literally correspondence or equality, and approximates to rhyme in English but has

5768-417: The eighty-six, original volunteers only fifteen ultimately took out patents, although these were supplemented by another twenty individuals not associated with the initial scheme. On the outbreak of the Nine Years' War, one contemporary estimate was that the plantation had attracted about 5,000 English settlers, but it is more commonly surmised that the total English population in the colony stood at c. 4000 at

5871-437: The extent of English settlers. A typical example of a colonial plantation was Providence Plantations , the first permanent European settlement in Rhode Island . Providence Plantations was established along the Providence River by Puritan minister Roger Williams and a small band of followers, who were fleeing religious persecution in Massachusetts Bay . Upon arriving in Rhode Island, Williams and his followers received

5974-404: The first English plantation was established in 1607 at Jamestown . Over the next century, more English plantations would be established along the Eastern Seaboard , which collectively came to be known as the Thirteen American Colonies , consisting of the New England , Middle and Southern colonies. Other European colonial powers used the plantation method of colonization as well, though not to

6077-532: The first overthrow in 1598. This was well short of the 11,375 people that the original plans had envisaged. There was an enterprising capitalist element to the Munster plantations. Privateers and the enterprising public could buy land in Munster at pennies an acre as undertakers, sometimes backed by private investors. Sir Walter Raleigh owned large estates in Munster and harvested the forests around his estate to make tobacco pipes and wine barrels, although his company proved unprofitable. However, other investors made

6180-412: The fisheries in Munster. The scheme was privately funded but also received a stipend from the English crown At about this time as part of the joint stock scheme Grenville also seized lands from the native Irish for colonization at Tracton , to the west of Cork harbour creating the first English joint stock colony in history. After Richard Greenville had departed from Ireland the fledging colony of Tracton

6283-426: The fledgling colonies were destroyed by the Irish under James FitzMaurice when the first Desmond Rebellion began. Dr Hiram Morgan has stated that the Plantations of Munster starting with St leger were the prototype for the American colonies, the joint stock Irish model became the model for the Virginia Company. In the 1570s, there was an attempt to colonize parts of east Ulster , which had formerly been part of

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6386-418: The influence of the literate monks and foundations created by them across northern Europe. The development of Dán Direach seems to coincide with the rise of the secular schools in the 12th century. Families that had their roots in the great monastic literary tradition appear to have continued the learned tradition outside the strictly religious environment of the monasteries after the reform of the Irish church in

6489-419: The land and redistributed it, creating concentrations of British settlers around new towns and garrisons. The new landowners were explicitly banned from taking on Irish tenants, and had to import their tenant farmers from England and Scotland. The remaining Irish landowners were granted one quarter of the land in Ulster. The common Irish residents were to be relocated to live near garrisons and Protestant churches,

6592-447: The landscape, and also to centuries of ethnic and sectarian conflict. They took place before and during the earliest British colonization of the Americas , and a group known as the West Country Men were involved in both Irish and American colonization. There had been small-scale immigration from Britain since the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion . By the 15th century, direct English control had shrunk to an area called

6695-407: The major Catholic landowners in Leinster for similar treatment, including members of the powerful Butler dynasty. Wentworth's plans were interrupted by the outbreak of the Bishops Wars in Scotland, which eventually resulted in Wentworth's execution by the English Parliament and civil war in England and Ireland. Wentworth's constant questioning of Catholic land titles was one of the major causes of

6798-400: The migrants were women – a very high ratio compared, for instance, to contemporary Spanish settlement in Latin America or English settlement in Virginia . New England attracted more families, but still was predominately male in its early years. But the Irish population was neither removed nor Anglicised. In practise, the settlers did not stay on poorer lands, but clustered around towns and

6901-497: The more ready for Protestant control. The Planters were barred from selling their lands to any Irishman. The second major influence on the plantation of Ulster was the political negotiation among the interest groups on the British side. The principal landowners were to be English Undertakers , wealthy men from England and Scotland who undertook to import tenants from their own estates. The planters were granted around 3,000 acres (1,214 ha) each, on condition that they settle there

7004-460: The native population were usually monoglot speakers of Irish Gaelic . Later, the Catholic Church made a determined effort to retain its followers among the native population. In addition to the Ulster plantation, several other small plantations occurred under the reign of the Stuart Kings — James I and his son Charles I —in the early 17th century. The first of these took place in north county Wexford in 1610, where lands were confiscated from

7107-442: The new Catholic monarchs Philip and Mary I respectively. The new county towns were named Philipstown (now Daingean ) and Maryborough (now Portlaoise ). An act, the Counties of Leix and Offaly Act 1556 (3 & 4 Phil. & Mar. c. 2 (I)), was passed "whereby the King and Queen's Majesties, and the Heires and Successors of the Queen, be entitled to the Counties of Leix, Slewmarge, Irry, Glinmaliry, and Offaily, and for making

7210-426: The new settlers were principally Scots, tens of thousands of whom fled a famine in the lowlands and border regions of Scotland to come to Ulster. At this point Protestants and people of Scottish descent (who were mainly Presbyterians ) became an absolute majority of the population in Ulster. French Huguenots , who were Protestant, were also encouraged to settle in Ireland; they had been expelled from France after

7313-481: The new settlers were required to be English-speaking and Protestant , with most coming from England and Scotland. This created a distinct Ulster Protestant community. Beginning in the 15th century with the voyages of Christopher Columbus , various European colonial powers established colonies in the Americas . The Portuguese introduced Sugar plantations in the Caribbean in the 1550s. England's efforts at colonization primarily focused on North America , where

7416-446: The older Catholic ruling class, which had shared with the general population a common Irish identity and set of political attitudes. There had been small-scale immigration from Britain in the 12th century, after the Anglo-Norman invasion , creating a small Anglo-Norman , English, Welsh and Flemish community in Ireland, under the Crown of England. By the 15th century, English control had shrunk to an area called The English Pale . By

7519-477: The peaceful early years of the 17th century, thousands more English and Welsh settlers arrived in the province. There were many small plantations in Munster in this period, as Irish lords were required to forfeit up to one third of their estates to get their deeds to the remainder recognised by the English authorities. The settlers became concentrated in towns along the south coast – especially Youghal , Bandon , Kinsale and Cork city . Notable English Undertakers of

7622-454: The plantation method of colonization as well, though not to the extent of English settlers. Starting in the reign of King Edward I of England , the English Crown began a policy of castle building and settlement building in Wales to control the population, and strategically surround the newly conquered Kingdom of Gwynedd . Most of these castles were built with an integrated fortified town, which

7725-439: The planters and their descendants and the native Irish Catholics. But the ethnic/religious divisions were less stark in Munster than in Ulster. Some of the earlier English Planters in Munster had been Roman Catholics and their descendants largely sided with the Irish in the 1640s. Conversely, some Irish noblemen who had converted to Protestantism – notably Earl Inchiquin – sided with the settler community. Over 12,000 veterans of

7828-658: The political power of the Irish Catholic gentry. Wentworth confiscated land in Wicklow and planned a full-scale Plantation of Connacht – where all Catholic landowners would lose between a half and a quarter of their estates. The local juries were intimidated into accepting Wentworth's settlement; when a group of Connacht landowners complained to Charles I, Wentworth had them imprisoned. However, settlement proceeded only in County Sligo and County Roscommon . Next, Wentworth surveyed

7931-520: The projected figure. The Munster Plantation was supposed to develop compact defensible settlements, but the English settlers were spread in pockets across the province, wherever land had been confiscated. Initially, the English Undertakers were given detachments of English soldiers to protect them, but these were abolished in the 1590s. As a result, when the Nine Years War – an Irish rebellion against English rule – reached Munster in 1598, most of

8034-498: The province and declared the lands of O'Neill, O'Donnell and their followers forfeit. Initially, Chichester planned a fairly modest plantation, including large grants to Irish-born lords who had sided with the English during the war. However, in 1608 Cahir O'Doherty 's rebellion in County Donegal interrupted implementation of this plan. O'Doherty was a former ally of the English who felt he had not been fairly rewarded for his role in

8137-454: The province to be forfeit to the Crown. In 1571, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Thomas Smith a large portion of Clannaboy and the Ards to colonize. Smith envisaged a colony led by the younger sons of English gentlemen, in which the native Irish would be employed as labourers. The scheme was partly privately funded and partly state-sponsored by way of military support. In 1572 Smith's son landed in

8240-414: The region of 15,000 colonists, but a report from 1589 showed that the English Undertakers had imported only about 700 English tenants between them. Historians have noted that each tenant was the head of a household and that he therefore likely represented at least 4–5 other people. This would put the English population in Munster at nearer to three or four thousand persons, but it was still substantially below

8343-468: The reign of Queen Mary I of England in the counties of Laois and Offaly . However, these efforts at establishing plantations largely failed due to attacks from the local Irish clans. The next wave of plantations began during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England and were spearheaded by the West Country Men . Elizabeth's policy in Ireland was to grant land to prospective planters and prevent

8446-533: The remainder of the 17th century, Irish Catholics tried to get the Cromwellian Act of Settlement reversed. They briefly achieved this under James II during the Williamite war in Ireland , but the Jacobite defeat there led to another round of land confiscations. During the 1680s and 90s, another major wave of settlement took place in Ireland (though not another plantation in terms of land confiscation). At this time,

8549-511: The same Countries Shire Grounds.". The act was repealed in 1962 . Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine .</ref> This plantation initiated the colonial settlement pattern for extending English control in hostile regions. The Leix-Offaly plantation also demonstrated to the Crown high cost of colonialism, leading them to encourage private financial participation in colonial ventures. The O'Moore and O'Connor clans, which occupied

8652-542: The settler and native communities in the province. Although peace was eventually restored to Ulster, the wounds opened in the plantation and civil war years were very slow to heal and arguably still fester in Northern Ireland in the early 21st century. In the 1641 Rebellion, the Munster Plantation was temporarily destroyed, just as it had been during the Nine Years' War . Ten years of warfare took place in Munster between

8755-544: The settler population in the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Irish Catholics attacked the plantations all around the country, but especially in Ulster . English writers at the time put the Protestant victims at over 100,000. William Petty , in his survey of the 1650s, estimated the death toll at around 30,000. More recent research, however, based on close examination of the depositions of the Protestant refugees collected in 1642, suggests

8858-450: The settlers were chased off their lands without a fight. They took refuge in the province's walled towns or fled back to England. However, when the rebellion was put down in 1601–03, the Plantation was re-constituted by the Governor of Munster, George Carew . The English settler population in the 1620s was four times greater than in the earlier Munster plantation and powerful enough to control

8961-545: The survey took in the lands belonging to other families and clans that had supported the rebellions in Kerry and southwest Cork. However, the settlement here was rather piecemeal because the ruling clan – the MacCarthy Mór line – argued that the rebel landowners were their subordinates and that the lords actually owned the land. In this area, lands once granted to some English Undertakers was taken away again when native lords, such as

9064-639: The time of Elizabeth and James I, the Catholics of England suffered a greater degree of persecution than English Catholics in Ireland. In England, Catholics were greatly outnumbered by Protestants and lived under constant fear of betrayal by their fellows. In Ireland they could blend in with the local majority-Catholic population in a way that was not possible in England. English Catholic planters were most common in County Kilkenny , where they may have made up half of all

9167-549: The total settler population could have been as high as 80,000 to 150,000. They formed local majorities of the population in the Finn and Foyle valleys (around modern Derry and east County Donegal), north County Armagh and east County Tyrone . Planters had achieved substantial settlement on unofficially planted lands in north Down, led by James Hamilton and Hugh Montgomery , and in south Antrim under Sir Randall MacDonnell. The settler population increased rapidly, as just under half of

9270-510: The town after dark, held no rights to trade and were not allowed to carry arms. Today, the Iron Ring is a contentious part of Welsh history. In 2017, when plans were announced for an iron sculpture of a giant ring as part of a restoration project of Flint Castle , the project was met with criticism and accusations that it was commemorating the Edwardian conquest of Wales, a contentious event among

9373-455: The towns (especially Dublin) – notably as bankers and financiers. By 1641, there were calculated to be up to 125,000 Protestant settlers in Ireland, though they were still outnumbered by native Catholics by around 15 to 1. Not all of the early 17th century English Planters were Protestants. A considerable number of English Catholics settled in Ireland between 1603 and 1641, in part for economic reasons but also to escape persecution in England. In

9476-527: The ultimate capitalist-colonialist of the period, the newly created Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork . He then partnered with another Munster colonist, Captain William Newce, to invest in the newly—formed Virginia Company and helped establish the colony at Jamestown in North America. As well as the former Geraldine estates (spread through the modern counties of Limerick , Cork , Kerry and Tipperary ),

9579-517: The use of the Irish language in 1537 with The Statute of Ireland – An Act for the English Order Habit and Language (28. Hen. 8. c. 15 (I)). Irish clothing was also banned throughout the centuries. On 14 February 1588, William Herbert wrote to Francis Walsingham that he desired to show posterity his affection for his God and his prince 'by a volume of my writing,' by 'a colony of my planting,' and by 'a college of my erecting.' Moderate in treating

9682-647: The vowels are repeated, uaithne consonant rhyming or consonance , in which the consonants are the same, uaim alliteration , or the repetition of initial consonants. Comhardadh occurs only when the first syllable of each word had the same vowel and consonants of the same class and broadness/slenderness. The terminology extends to the number of syllables in a word. An domhan ó mhuir go muir Ar son gur chuir fa chomhthaibh - Créad acht cás bróin do bhrosdadh? - Ar bhás níor fhóir Alasdar. Plantations of Ireland Plantations in 16th- and 17th-century Ireland ( Irish : Plandálacha na hÉireann ) involved

9785-467: The war. The rebellion was swiftly put down and O'Doherty killed, but these events gave Chichester a justification for expropriating all of the original landowners in the province. In 1603 James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, uniting these two crowns and also gaining possession of the Kingdom of Ireland , at that time an English Crown possession. The Plantation of Ulster was promoted to him as

9888-508: Was an attempt to establish the first joint stock colony in Kerrycurrihy barony, but it was destroyed by the Irish. In the 1570s a privately-funded plantation of east Ulster was attempted, but it also sparked conflict with the local Irish lord and ended in failure. The Munster plantation of the 1580s followed the Desmond Rebellions . Businessmen were encouraged to invest in the scheme and English colonists were settled on land confiscated from

9991-747: Was annihilated in the aftermath of the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–83) and their estates were confiscated by the Crown. The English authorities took the opportunity to settle the province with colonists from England and Wales, who, it was hoped, would be a bulwark against further rebellions. In 1584, the Surveyor General of Ireland, Sir Valentine Browne and a commission surveyed Munster, to allocate confiscated lands to English Undertakers (wealthy colonists who "undertook" to import tenants from England to work their new lands). The English Undertakers were obligated to develop new towns and provide for

10094-498: Was designed to be provisioned from safer territories and hold out against Welsh attacks, an idea that the Normans had developed from the bastides of Gascony . These bastide towns were defended by stone fortifications some designed by James of St. George d'Esperanche . The towns were exclusively populated with English or Flemish settlers, who depended on the crown for their survival in Wales. The Welsh themselves were not permitted to enter

10197-590: Was granted their own town , and lands. The final major recipient of lands was the Protestant Church of Ireland , which was granted all churches and lands previously owned by the Roman Catholic church. The Crown intended that clerics from England and the Pale convert the population to Protestantism . The Plantation of Ulster was a mixed success for the English. By the 1630s, there were 20,000 adult male English and Scottish settlers in Ulster, which meant that

10300-480: Was in gold rings, horses, land or apparel. Other notable styles practiced may have been the caoineadh or death lament and the fonn or mantra of repetition. Aer refers to poetical satire, a form used against the powerful. As satirists poets had the power to destroy the reputation of even the highest nobility . Some satires were reputed to bring disease and blemish to the accused, others humiliation. Irish contains many terms for types of rhyme and rhythms used in

10403-507: Was sacked by Donald McCarthy, 1st Earl of Clancare and Fitzmaurice along with the native inhabitants. The colony was small and quickly overwhelmed and all the English colonial inhabitants were killed except three or four English soldiers, who were promptly executed the next day. Sir Peter Carew had also asserted his claim to lands in south Leinster. The plantations in the south of Ireland led to bitter disputes with local Irish. However, in June 1569

10506-427: Was taken over by Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex , who set out to colonize much of County Antrim. He provided most of the funding, with the state providing some of the military support. He landed at Carrickfergus in 1573 with 1,100 men, but their numbers dwindled following an outbreak of plague in the town. The colonists were opposed by McPhelim, Turlough Luineach O'Neill of Tyrone , and Sorley Boy MacDonnell of

10609-555: Was the biggest and most successful of the plantations and comprised most of the province of Ulster. While the province was mainly Irish -speaking and Catholic , the new settlers were required to be English-speaking Protestants , with most coming from northern England and the Scottish Lowlands . This created a distinct Ulster Protestant community. The Ulster plantation was one cause of the 1641 Irish Rebellion , during which thousands of settlers were killed, expelled or fled. After

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