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40-415: * Dyḗus ( lit. "daylight-sky-god"), also * Dyḗus ph₂tḗr (lit. "father daylight-sky-god"), is the reconstructed name of the daylight-sky god in Proto-Indo-European mythology . * Dyēus was conceived as a divine personification of the bright sky of the day and the seat of the gods, the * deywṓs . Associated with the vast diurnal sky and with the fertile rains, * Dyēus

80-407: A database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases , which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages , a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required. The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct

120-466: A great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy is regarded as a prose translation. The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to (or

160-570: A joke which dates back to 1956 or 1958. Another joke in the genre transforms "out of sight, out of mind" to "blind idiot" or "invisible idiot". Palaic language Its name in Hittite is palaumnili , or "of the people of Pala"; Pala was probably to the northwest of the Hittite core area, so in the northwest of present mainland Turkey . The region was overrun by the Kaskians in the 15th century BC, and

200-456: A literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante 's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels. Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however,

240-548: A sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes. " That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between "his" car and "hers". Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin . Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch . For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from

280-404: A serious problem for machine translation . The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts. Word-for-word translations ("cribs", "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating a work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used

320-561: A spouse-goddess reconstructed as *Diwōnā or *Diuōneh₂ , with a possible descendant in Zeus's consort Dione . A thematic echo occurs in the Vedic tradition as Indra's wife Indrānī displays a similar jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. After the mating of Dia's husband Ixion with the phantom of Hera ,

360-456: Is a translation of a text done by translating each word separately without looking at how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence. In translation theory , another term for literal translation is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter ). Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms , which can be

400-479: Is also of contrast: the latter is portrayed as the vast and dark dwelling of mortals, located below the bright seat of the gods. According to Jackson however, as the thunder-god is frequently associated with the fructifying rains, she may be a more fitting partner of *Perkʷūnos than of *Dyēus . While Hausos and the Divine Twins are generally considered the offsprings of *Dyēus alone, some scholars have proposed

440-516: Is equally possible". The phonemic status of /e/ and /eː/ is uncertain. In terms of its morphology , Palaic is a fairly typical specimen of Indo-European. Palaic shared common innovations with Luwian not present in Old Hittite, suggesting a prior Luwian-Palaic linguistic complex. It has been characterized as "more conservative than Hittite" and heavily influenced by the Hattic language , though caution

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480-471: Is prescribed for the latter assertion given the paucity of available materials. Palaic shows the same gender distinction as seen in Hittite, i.e. animate vs. inanimate. It distinguishes two numbers, singular and plural, and at least six cases: nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , and locative . Old Hittite has the genitive singular suffix -aš circa 1600 BC (compare Proto-Indo-European *-os ); where Cuneiform Luwian instead uses

520-519: Is thought to be a late development exclusive to Mediterranean traditions, probably derived from syncretism with Canaanite deities and the Proto-Indo-European god *Perkʷūnos . Due to his celestial nature, *Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing" or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it

560-623: Is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language. A literal English translation of the German phrase " Ich habe Hunger " would be "I have hunger" in English, but this is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in

600-482: The -ašša/i- adjectival suffix. Palaic, on the northern border of both, like later Hieroglyphic Luwian has both an -aš genitive and an -aša- adjectival suffix. Palaic also has similar pronoun forms to Old Hittite. The verb in Palaic is inflected for number (singular and plural), person, tense (present and preterite), and mood (indicative and imperative). It also has two voices, active and medio-passive . Palaic

640-642: The Greek goddess Pandeia or Pandia ( Ancient Greek : Πανδία, Πανδεία , "all brightness") may have been another name for the Moon Goddess Selene , her name still preserves the root *di -/ *dei -, meaning "to shine, be bright". The most constant epithet associated with * Dyēus is "father" ( *ph₂tḗr ). The term "Father Dyēus" was inherited in the Vedic Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́ , Greek Zeus Patēr , Illyrian Dei-pátrous , Roman Jupiter (* Djous patēr ), even in

680-523: The Vedic Indo-Aryans , Latins , Greeks , Phrygians , Messapians , Thracians , Illyrians , Albanians and Hittites . The divine name *Dyēus derives from the stem *dyeu-, denoting the "diurnal sky" or the "brightness of the day" (in contrast to the darkness of the night), ultimately from the root * di or dei - ("to shine, be bright"). Cognates in Indo-European languages revolving around

720-518: The Zoroastrian religious reformation, demonized the Slavic successor of *Dyēus (abandoning this word in the sense of "heaven" at the same time, keeping the word for day , however, and abandoning many of the names of the other Proto-Indo-European gods, replacing them with new Slavic or Iranian names), while not replacing it with any other specific god, as a result of cultural contacts with Iranian peoples in

760-535: The "natural" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator. Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence "In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers." might be translated into French as " Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y

800-435: The German word Schaukelstuhl instead of "rocking chair". Literal translation of idioms is a source of translators' jokes. One such joke, often told about machine translation , translates "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (an allusion to Mark 14:38 ) into Russian and then back into English, getting "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten". This is not an actual machine-translation error, but rather

840-621: The Greek—and to a lesser extent the Vedic—tradition, and it remains therefore not secured. If the female goddesses Hera , Juno , Frigg and Shakti share a common association with marriage and fertility, Mallory and Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage." Cognates deriving either from

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880-480: The Slavs were also supposed to believe in a god in heaven, who only deals with heavenly matters and commands other gods. Various loanwords of * deiwós were introduced in non-Indo-European languages, such as Estonian taevas or Finnish taivas ("sky"), borrowed from Proto-Indo-Iranian into these Uralic languages. Literal translation Literal translation , direct translation , or word-for-word translation

920-491: The concepts of "day", "sky" and "deity" and sharing the root *dyeu - as an etymon , such as Sanskrit dyumán- 'heavenly, shining, radiant', suggest that Dyēus referred to the vast and bright sky of the day conceived as a divine entity among Proto-Indo-European speakers. A vṛddhi-derivative appears in * deywós ("celestial"), the common word for "god" in Proto-Indo-European . In classic Indo-European, associated with

960-531: The day"), Vedic Sanskrit dína- "day" and divé-dive ("day by day"), Lithuanian dienà and Latvian dìena ("day"), Slavic dъnъ ("day") or Slavic Poludnitsa ("Lady Midday"), Latin Dies , goddess of the day and counterpart to Greek Hemera , Hittite siwat ("day"), Palaic Tīyat- ("Sun, day"), Ancient Greek endios ("midday"), Old Armenian tiw (տիւ, "bright day"), Old Irish noenden ("nine-day period"), Welsh heddyw ("today"). While

1000-518: The eye of Zeus, Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda , and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore . *Dyēus is often paired with *Dʰéǵʰōm , the Earth goddess, and described as uniting with her to ensure the growth and sustenance of terrestrial life; the earth becomes pregnant as the rain falls from the sky. The relationship between Father Sky (* Dyēus Ph₂tḗr ) and Mother Earth ( *Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr )

1040-570: The father of both the Divine Twins and the goddess of the Dawn ( *H₂éwsōs ), *Dyēus was a prominent deity in the Proto-Indo-European pantheon . He was however likely not their ruler or the holder of the supreme power like Zeus and Jupiter. *Dyēus was associated with the bright and vast sky, but also to the cloudy weather in the Vedic and Greek formulas *Dyēus' rain. Although several reflexes of Dyēus are storm deities, such as Zeus and Jupiter, this

1080-623: The first millennium BC. Hence, after the process of demonization by the Slavs, *Dyēus is considered to have originated two continuations: *divo ("strange, odd thing") and *divъ ("demon"). The result of this demonization may be Pan-Slavic demons, e.g. Polish and Czech dziwożona , or Div occurring in The Tale of Igor's Campaign . According to some researchers, at least some of *Dyēus' s traits could have been taken over by Svarog ( Urbańczyk : Sun- Dažbóg – heavenly fire, Svarožič – earthly fire, Svarog – heaven, lightning). Helmold recalls that

1120-439: The following liturgic and poetic traditions : Other reflexes are variants that have retained both linguistic descendants of the stem * dyeu - ("sky") alongside the original structure "Father God". Some traditions have replaced the epithet *ph 2 ter with the nursery word papa ("dad, daddy"): Other variants are less secured: Cognates stemming from * deywós , a vṛddhi-derivation of * dyēus (the sky-god), are attested in

1160-444: The following traditions: Other cognates are less secured: Other cognates deriving from the adjective *diwyós ( *dyeu "sky" + yós , a thematic suffix) are attested in the following traditions: Other cognates are less secured: As the pantheons of the individual mythologies related to Proto-Indo-European religion evolved, attributes of *Dyēus seem to have been redistributed to other deities. In Greek and Roman mythology, *Dyēus

1200-649: The form of "dad" or "papa" in the Scythian Papaios for Zeus , or the Palaic expression Tiyaz papaz . The epithet *Ph₂tḗr Ǵenh 1 -tōr ("Father Procreator") is also attested in the Vedic, Iranian, Greek, and perhaps the Roman ritual traditions. *Dyēus was the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven. As the gateway to the deities and

1240-512: The language likely went out of daily use at that time. The entire corpus of Palaic spans only CTH 751-754 in Emmanuel Laroche 's catalog of Hittite texts ; in addition Hittite texts elsewhere cite passages in Palaic in reference to the weather god Zaparwa ( Hittite Ziparwa), the leading god of the land of Pala. In particular, CTH 750, a festival in Hittite for Ziparwa and associated deities, includes passages stating, "The Old Woman speaks

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1280-612: The late Khvalynsk culture (3900–3500), *Dyēus also had the meaning of "Heaven", whereas it denoted "god" in general (or the Sun-god in particular) in the Anatolian tradition . The suffix-derivative *diwyós ("divine") is also attested in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit. The noun * deynos ("day"), interpreted as a back-formation of * deywós , has descendant cognates in Albanian din ("break of

1320-504: The peak of the highest mountains like Tomorr in central Albania has been associated with the sky-god Zojz . The enduring sanctity of the mountain, the annual pilgrimage to its summit, and the solemn sacrifice of a white bull by the local people provide abundant evidence that the ancient cult of the sky-god on Mount Tomorr continues through the generations almost untouched by the course of political events and religious changes. At one point, early Slavs , like some Iranian peoples after

1360-588: The spouse of Zeus, the story leads ultimately to the birth of the Centaurs (who may be seen as reminiscent of the Divine Twins , sons of *Dyēus ). Another reflex may be found in the Mycenaean Greek Diwia , possibly a feminine counterpart of Zeus attested in the second part of the 2nd millennium BC and which may have survived in the Pamphylian dialect of Asia Minor. The reconstruction is however only based upon

1400-414: The stem *dyeu- ("daylight, bright sky"), the epithet *Dyēus Ph 2 ter ("Father Sky"), the vṛddhi-derivative *deiwós ("celestial", a "god"), the derivative *diwyós ("divine"), or the back-formation * deynos (a "day") are among the most widely attested in Indo-European languages . Ritual and formulaic expressions stemming from the form * Dyēus Ph 2 ter ("Father Dyēus") were inherited in

1440-529: The target language (a process also known as "loan translation") are called calques , e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten . The literal translation of the Italian sentence, " So che questo non va bene " ("I know that this is not good"), produces "(I) know that this not (it) goes well", which has English words and Italian grammar . Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed

1480-633: The words of the bread in Palaic," or alternately "the words of the meal," though no Palaic passages are quoted. The Palaic-language texts are all from a religious context, with ritual and mythological content. In addition to Zaparwa, the Palaumnili-speakers worshipped a sun deity Tiyaz ( Luwian Tiwaz ), the Hattian goddess Kataḫzip/wuri, and several others. Melchert reconstructs the following phonemic inventory for Palaic: However, Melchert claims that, instead of pharyngeals, "a pair of velar fricatives

1520-461: Was often paired with *Dʰéǵʰōm , the Earth Mother , in a relationship of union and contrast. While its existence is not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, * Dyēus is considered by scholars the most securely reconstructed deity of the Indo-European pantheon, as identical formulas referring to him can be found among the subsequent Indo-European languages and myths of

1560-639: Was the case for Zeus or the Indo-Iranian Mithra – Varuna duo, but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties. Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēus" or the "eye of Dyēus", as seen in various reflexes: "the god's lamp" in Euripides ' Medea , "heaven's candle" in Beowulf , "the land of Hatti's torch" (the Sun-goddess of Arinna ) in a Hittite prayer, Helios as

1600-663: Was the chief god, while the etymological continuant of Dyēus became a very abstract god in Vedic mythology , and his original prominence over other gods largely diluted. After the first access of the ancestors of the Albanians to the Christian religion in antiquity, the presumable Albanian term for Sky-Father – Zot – has been used for God , the Father and the Son ( Christ ). In Albanian folk beliefs

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