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65-716: The area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope ) and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and ended east of the Maluku Islands , according to the Treaty of Tordesillas . The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by

130-655: A canal house which his family sold in 1767. In 1622 he became bewindhebber of the Dutch West India Company and also held several directorships, such as of the Wisselbank from 1625-1633. He was one of the investors in draining the Bijlmer . In 1627 he chartered a ship on Arkhangelsk . In 1632 he bought the Swieten estate and manorhouse from Hugo Cuyk van Mierop - from these he later derived his noble title. In 1634 he

195-507: A millennium . This wobble means that the Tropic of Cancer is currently drifting southward at a rate of almost half an arcsecond (0.468″) of latitude, or 15 m (49 ft), per year. The circle's position was at exactly 23° 27′N in 1917 and will be at 23° 26'N in 2045. The distance between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer is essentially constant as they move in tandem. This

260-610: A captain in a 1638 militia group portrait by Joachim von Sandrart , commissioned by the Kloveniersdoelen to mark the visit of Maria de Medici and now in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Another painting of Blick dates to 1654 and is attributed to Govert Flinck - this work was praised by Vondel . His wife was also painted by David Bailly . The Bicker family was one of the oldest patrician families of Amsterdam and belonged to

325-511: A galleon from Honduras with cacao, indigo, and other valuable goods. Privateering was its most profitable activity in the late 1620s. Despite Heyn's success at plunder, the company's directors realized that it was not a basis to build long-term profit, leading them to renew their attempts to seize Iberian territory in the Americas. They decided their target was Brazil. ( Recapture of Bahia ) There were conflicts between directors from different areas of The Netherlands, with Amsterdam less supportive of

390-666: A minor role, but expanded during the period of the Dutch in Brazil. Emigrant Calvinists from the Spanish Netherlands did make significant investments in the GWC. Investors did not rush to put their money in the company in 1621, but the States-General urged municipalities and other institutions to invest. Explanations for the slow investment by individuals were that shareholders had "no control over

455-646: A new charter was granted in 1675, largely on the strength in the Atlantic slave trade. This "new" version lasted for more than a century, until after the Fourth Anglo–Dutch War , during which it lost most of its assets. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was founded in 1602, some traders in Amsterdam did not agree with its monopolistic policies. With help from Petrus Plancius , a Dutch-Flemish astronomer, cartographer, and clergyman, they sought for

520-585: A northeastern or northwestern access to Asia to circumvent the VOC monopoly. In 1609, English explorer Henry Hudson , in employment of the VOC, landed on the coast of New England and sailed up what is now known as the Hudson River in his quest for the Northwest Passage to Asia. However, he failed to find a passage. Consequently, in 1615, Isaac Le Maire and Samuel Blommaert , assisted by others, focused on finding

585-431: A south-westerly route around South America's Tierra del Fuego archipelago in order to circumvent the monopoly of the VOC. One of the first sailors who focused on trade with Africa was Balthazar de Moucheron . The trade with Africa offered several possibilities to set up trading posts or factories , an important starting point for negotiations. It was Blommaert, however, who stated that, in 1600, eight companies sailed on

650-516: Is based on an assumption of a constant equator, but the precise location of the equator is not truly fixed. See: equator , axial tilt and circles of latitude for additional details. Download coordinates as: North of the tropic are the subtropics and the North Temperate Zone . The equivalent line of latitude south of the Equator is called the Tropic of Capricorn , and the region between

715-694: The Danish West India Company , an undercover Dutch enterprise, was founded. (In 1660 the Royal African Company was founded, led by the Duke of York .) In 1662, the GWC obtained several asiento subcontracts with the Spanish Crown , under which the Dutch were allowed to deliver 24,000 enslaved Africans. The GWC made Curaçao a centre of the Atlantic slave trade , bringing slaves from West Africa to

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780-611: The Equator . Its Southern Hemisphere counterpart, marking the most southerly position at which the Sun can be seen directly overhead, is the Tropic of Capricorn . These tropics are two of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of Earth, the others being the Arctic and Antarctic circles and the Equator . The positions of these two circles of latitude (relative to the Equator) are dictated by

845-501: The Holy Roman Empire , Denmark–Norway , England and other European countries. In 1649, a competing Swedish Africa Company was founded; the GWC obtained a monopoly on gold and enslaved Africans with the kingdom of Accra (present-day Ghana ). Elmina Castle was the main port. In 1654 the Dutch were thrown out of Brazil after the recapture of Recife . In 1656, the company signed the Treaty of Butre ( Dutch Gold Coast ). In 1659

910-966: The Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland and a counsellor of the States of Holland and West Friesland at The Hague. Cornelis Bicker, together with his brother Andries Bicker and his cousin Cornelis de Graeff , was one of the main initiators for a peace with Spain in the Eighty Years' War and for the participation of the Dutch provinces in the Peace of Münster . Cornelis Bicker was the youngest son of Gerrit Bicker and Aleyd Andriesdr Boelens Loen . In 1617 Cornelis Bicker married Aertge Witsen (1599–1652)(1599–1652), daughter of merchant and burgomaster Gerrit Jacobsz Witsen . They had five children: In 1617 Cornelis Bicker and his wife settled at Singel 130 in Amsterdam, in

975-752: The Northern Tropic , is the Earth 's northernmost circle of latitude where the Sun can be seen directly overhead . This occurs on the June solstice , when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun to its maximum extent. It also reaches 90 degrees below the horizon at solar midnight on the December Solstice . Using a continuously updated formula, the circle is currently 23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°) north of

1040-575: The Americas, fur (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded the enslaved (mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname), gold, copper and ivory. In North America, the settlers Albert Burgh , Samuel Blommaert, Samuel Godijn , Johannes de Laet had little success with populating the colony of New Netherland, and to defend themselves against local Amerindians. Only Kiliaen Van Rensselaer managed to maintain his settlement in

1105-624: The Dutch Republic would withdraw from trading with Asia and America. Spain refused to sign the peace treaty if a West Indian Company would be established. At this time, the Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic was occurring. Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt offered to suspend trade with the West Indies in exchange for the Twelve Years' Truce . He took

1170-625: The Dutch and The Spanish renewed truce talks in 1633. In 1629, the GWC gave permission to a number of investors in New Netherlands to found patroonships , enabled by the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions which was ratified by the Dutch States General on 7 June 1629. The patroonships were created to help populate the colony, by providing investors grants providing land for approximately 50 people "upwards of 15 years old", per grant, mainly in

1235-692: The East India company.) The institutional structure of the GWC followed the federal structure, which entailed extensive discussion for any decision, with regional representation: 8 from Amsterdam ; 4 from Zeeland , 2 each from the Northern Quarter ( Hoorn and Enkhuizen ), the Maas ( Rotterdam , Delft , and Dordrecht ), the region of Groningen , and one representative from the States General . Each region had its own chamber and board of directors. The validity of

1300-592: The Eguafo Kingdom along the Gold Coast, present-day Ghana. The Komenda Wars drew in significant numbers of neighbouring African kingdoms and led to the replacement of the gold trade with enslaved Africans. Calabar was the largest slave trading place in Africa. Sint Eustatius (Dutch Caribbean) became the most profitable asset of the GWC and a transit point for enslaved Africans in the transatlantic slave trade . After 1734

1365-578: The GWC came under the rule of the States General of the Netherlands . A directorate Ad-Interim took over the administration. A Council of Colonies was established as administrator over the affairs of the GWC until 1795. Around 1800 there was an attempt to create a third West India Company, but without success. Tropic of Cancer 23°26′12.5″N 0°0′0″W  /  23.436806°N -0.00000°E  / 23.436806; -0.00000  ( Prime Meridian ) The Tropic of Cancer , also known as

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1430-503: The GWC could not repay its debts in 1674, the company was dissolved. But due to continued high demand for trade between West Africa and the Dutch colonies in the Americas (mainly slave trade ), a second West India Company known as the New West India Company was chartered that same year. This new company controlled the same trade area as the first but privateering was no longer an asset. All ships, fortresses, etc. were taken over by

1495-554: The GWC was primarily engaged in facilitating the slave trade, and only responsible for the supply of slaves until 1738. The company then began to outsource the slave trade and left it to private enterprise , especially in Middelburg, Zeeland . In 1750 Thomas Hope was elected in the board of the company, but preferred the Heren XVII after two years; he was succeeded by Nicolaas Geelvinck in 1764. In 1773, when drinking coffee and cocoa

1560-534: The States General. In February 1651 he was sent to the States of Holland for three years. He was burgomaster of Amsterdam in 1646, 1650 and 1654. Cornelis Bicker was buried in Amsterdam's Nieuwe Kerk . During the 1640s, the influence of Andries Bicker, his family and the city grew even greater as the end of the Eighty Years' War drew nearer. Amsterdam's trade interests pointed in the direction of peace and she

1625-456: The Tropic of Cancer experience two distinct seasons: an extremely hot summer with temperatures often reaching 45 °C (113 °F) and a warm winter with maxima around 22 °C (72 °F). Much land on or near the Tropic of Cancer is part of the Sahara Desert , while to the east, the climate is torrid monsoonal with a short wet season from June to September, and very little rainfall for

1690-779: The West Indian Company could be established. The West India Company received its charter from the States-General in June 1621, granting it a 24-year monopoly on trade and colonization that included the American coast between Newfoundland and the Straits of Magellan. One of the promotors was Reynier Pauw , who went on to appoint two of his sons as the first managers in 1621; both Pieter and Michiel Reyniersz Pauw were in place for fifteen years. Reynier Pauw II, Cornelis Bicker , and Samuel Blommaert were appointed in 1622. The Dutch West India Company

1755-489: The bridges, shut the gates and deployed artillery. The attack failed but after the attack burgomaster Cornelis de Graeff passed on a message from William II that Cornelis and Andries must resign from their posts on the town council. However, they were restored to them on 22 November the same year afterwards William died shortly of smallpox. Bicker commissioned a large-format portrait of himself and his family from Cornelis van der Voort in 1618. Cornelis Bicker also appears as

1820-540: The centralize the five admiralties, which would cause the Admiralty of Amsterdam to lose influence. During the 1640s, the republican elite of the province of Holland , the brothers Cornelis, Andries, Jacob and Jan Bicker, Jacob de Witt and the brothers Andries and Cornelis de Graeff advocated an end to the Eighty Years' War with the Kingdom of Spain and a reduction in land forces. This ongoing state of war prevented

1885-415: The charter was set at 24 years. Only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure. The States General of the Netherlands and the VOC pledged one million guilders in the form of capital and subsidy. Although Iberian writers said that crypto-Jews or Marranos played an important role in the formation of both the VOC and the GWC, research has shown that initially they played

1950-633: The coast of Africa, competing with each other for the supply of copper, from the Kingdom of Loango . Pieter van den Broecke was employed by one of these companies. In 1612, a Dutch fortress was built in Mouree (present day Ghana), along the Dutch Gold Coast . Trade with the Caribbean, for salt, sugar and tobacco, was hampered by Spain and delayed because of peace negotiations. Spain offered peace on condition that

2015-617: The company made losses and paid no dividend . After the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War , it became apparent that the GWC was no longer capable of defending its own colonies, as Sint Eustatius , Berbice , Essequibo , Demerara , and some forts on the Dutch Gold Coast were rapidly taken by the British. In 1791 it was decided not to renew the patent to the GWC and to dissolve the company. All stocks were sold and territories previously held by

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2080-520: The company. Non-maritime cities, including Haarlem , Leiden , and Gouda , along with Enkhuizen and Hoorn were enthusiastic about seizing territory. They sent a fleet to Brazil, capturing Olinda and Pernambuco in 1630 in their initial foray to create a Dutch Brazil, but could not hold them due to a strong Portuguese resistance. Company ships continued privateering in the Caribbean, as well seizing vital land resources, particularly salt pans. The company's general lack of success saw their shares plummet and

2145-516: The directors' policy and the handling of ordinary investors' money," that it was a "racket" to provide "cushy posts for the directors and their relatives, at the expense of ordinary shareholders". The VOC directors invested money in the GWC, without consulting their shareholders, causing dissent among a number of shareholders. In order to attract foreign shareholders, the GWC offered equal standing to foreign investors with Dutch, resulting in shareholders from France, Switzerland, and Venice. A translation of

2210-531: The distance is set to a rounded value of at least 36,770 kilometres (22,850 mi). Cornelis Bicker Cornelis Bicker van Swieten (25 October 1592 – 15 September 1654), heer (lord) van Swieten, was an Amsterdam regent of the Dutch Republic during the Golden Age . He traded in sugar, was a governor of the Dutch West India Company and director of the Wisselbank . He was schepen , hoogheemraad of

2275-628: The economic growth and social development of the Republic of the United Netherlands . Also, this state of war strengthened the atadtholder's power as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, something the Republicans did not want. This intensified the conflict between them and the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange and the Reformed Hollands. In 1647 he became a deputy for East Friesland at

2340-496: The fact that the Sun appears to "turn back" at the solstices. The Tropic of Cancer's position is not fixed, but constantly changes because of a slight wobble in the Earth's longitudinal alignment relative to the ecliptic , the plane in which the Earth orbits around the Sun. Earth's axial tilt varies over a 41,000-year period from about 22.1 to 24.5 degrees, and as of 2000 is about 23.4 degrees, which will continue to remain valid for about

2405-741: The first capital. Other settlements were established on the Netherlands Antilles , and in South America, in Dutch Brazil, Suriname and Guyana . In Africa, posts were established on the Gold Coast (now Ghana ), the Slave Coast (now Benin ), and briefly in Dutch Loango-Angola . It was a neo- feudal system , where patrons were permitted considerable powers to control the overseas colony. In

2470-479: The following 17 countries (including two disputed territories) and 8 water bodies, starting at the prime meridian and heading eastward: The climate at the Tropic of Cancer is generally hot and dry, except for cooler highland regions in China, marine environments such as Hawaii, and easterly coastal areas, where orographic rainfall can be very heavy, in some places reaching 4 metres (160 in) annually. Most regions on

2535-540: The island, before selling them elsewhere in the Caribbean and Spanish Main . The influence of the GWC in Africa was threatened during the Second and Third Anglo–Dutch Wars , but English efforts to displace the Dutch from the region ultimately proved unsuccessful. The first West India Company suffered a long agony, and its end in 1674 was painless. The reason that the GWC could drag on for 27 years seems to have been its valuable West African possessions, due to its slaves. When

2600-400: The leading regent - oligarchy . The Bickers were the most powerful family in Amsterdam and decisively determined the fortunes of the city. They were a major trading family involved in the pelt trade with Muscovy and supplying ships and silver to Spain. Laurens Bicker was one of the first to trade on Guinea and seized four Portuguese ships in 1604. The Bicker- De Graeff family-faction became

2665-429: The major goals within the GWC. The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance. On almost all ships in 1623, 40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the hijacking of enemy ships. It is unclear whether the first expedition was the expedition by Jacques l'Hermite to the coast of Chile, Peru and Bolivia, set up by Stadtholder Maurice with

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2730-519: The meantime, the war demanded so many of its forces that the company had to operate under a permanent threat of bankruptcy. In fact, the GWC went bankrupt in 1636 and all attempts at rehabilitation were doomed to failure. In 1636, the Dutch West India Company took possession of St. Eustatius , Sint Maarten , and Saba which all fell under Dutch control. A commander was stationed on St. Eustatius to govern all three islands by 1678. Because of

2795-406: The merchants. The company became instrumental in the largely ephemeral Dutch colonization of the Americas (including New Netherland ) in the seventeenth century. From 1624 to 1654, in the context of the Dutch–Portuguese War , the GWC held Portuguese territory in northeast Brazil, but they were ousted from Dutch Brazil following fierce resistance. After several reversals, the GWC reorganized and

2860-486: The militia to defend against an attack on Amsterdam by the new stadholder William II after being warned of William's approach by a postman travelling from Hamburg to Amsterdam, who passed on the news to Bicker's nephew (via his brother, the former burgomaster Andries) Gerard Bicker , then the bailiff or drost of Muiden . Gerard set off for Amsterdam immediately and after receiving the news Cornelis and Andries together with burgomaster Joan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen raised

2925-415: The new company. Nobody was fired, but the number of directors was reduced from 19 to 10, and the number of governors from 74 to 50. By 1679, the new GWC had slightly more than 6 million guilders which was largely supplied by the Amsterdam Chamber. In 1687, due to the Asiento possessed by Balthasar Coymans , the company paid the highest dividend. From 1694 until 1700, the GWC waged a long conflict against

2990-423: The north along the Hudson. Blommaert secretly tried to secure his interests with the founding of the colony of New Sweden on behalf of Sweden on the Delaware in the south. The main focus of the GWC now went to Brazil. The West India Company managed to conquer parts of Brazil from Portugal in 1630. That same year, the colony of New Holland was founded, with a capital in Mauritsstad (present-day Recife ). In

3055-518: The ongoing war in Brazil, the situation for the GWC in 1645, at the end of the charter, was very bad. An attempt to compensate the losses of the GWC with the profits of the VOC failed because the directors of the VOC did not want to. In 1645, the main participants in the GWC were members of the Trip family . Merging the two companies was not feasible. Amsterdam was not willing to help out, because it had too much interest in peace and healthy trade relations with Portugal. This indifferent attitude of Amsterdam

3120-433: The original 1621 charter appeared in English, Orders and Articles granted by the High and Mightie Lords the States General of the United Provinces concerning the erecting of a West-Indies Companie, Anno Dom. MDCXII . by 1623, the capital for the GWC at 2.8 million florins was not as great the VOC's original capitalization of 6.5 million, but it was still a substantial sum. The GWC had 15 ships to carry trade and plied

3185-417: The proposal of founding a West-India Company off table. The result was that, during a few years, the Dutch sailed under a foreign flag to South America. However, ten years later, Stadtholder Maurice of Orange , proposed to continue the war with Spain, but also to distract attention from Spain to the Republic. In 1619, his opponent Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded, and when in April 1621 the truce expired,

3250-424: The reduction of the land forces, the political opposition to the House of Orange and in particular to the new stadtholder William II , who wanted to make the city of Amsterdam docile in 1650 by means of a coup d'etat, deepened. In May 1650 he supported a proposal that suggested military cutbacks to encourage peace efforts. On 30 July 1650 the brothers Andries (old-burgomaster) and burgomaster Cornelis Bicker activated

3315-435: The region of New Netherland. Patroon investors could expand the size of their land grants as large as 4 miles, "along the shore or along one bank of a navigable river..." Rensselaerswyck was the most successful Dutch West India Company patroonship. The New Netherland area, which included New Amsterdam , covered parts of present-day New York, Connecticut, Delaware, and New Jersey, with Manhattan and Fort Amsterdam serving as

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3380-419: The rest of the year. The highest mountain on or adjacent to the Tropic of Cancer is Yu Shan in Taiwan . It had glaciers descending as low as 2,800 metres (9,190 ft) during the Last Glacial Maximum . At present glaciers still exist around the Tropic. The nearest currently surviving are the Minyong and Baishui in the Himalayas to the north and on Iztaccíhuatl in Mexico to the south. According to

3445-408: The rules of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , for a flight to compete for a round-the-world speed record, it must cover a distance no less than the length of the Tropic of Cancer, cross all meridians , and end on the same airfield where it started. The length of the Tropic of Cancer is 36,788 km (22,859 mi): For an ordinary circumnavigation the rules are somewhat relaxed and

3510-466: The strongest competitor in the years after the Dutch uprising. They controlled Amsterdam's city government and the province of Holland for half a century. Both families were powerful and influential between the earlier 17th century and the Rampjaar 1672 during the height of the Republic's power. Through their work on the Amsterdam City Council and the Dutch East India Company , the Bickers gained enormous influence on politico-economic self-determination in

3575-434: The support of the States General and the VOC. The company was initially a dismal failure, in terms of its expensive early projects, and its directors shifted emphasis from conquest of territory to pursue plunder of shipping. The most spectacular success for the GWC was Piet Heyn's seizure of the Spanish silver fleet , which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain. He had also seized a consignment of sugar from Brazil and

3640-402: The tilt of Earth's axis of rotation relative to the plane of its orbit , and since the tilt changes, the location of these two circles also changes. In geopolitics , it is known for being the southern limitation on the mutual defence obligation of NATO , as member states of NATO are not obligated to come to the defence of territory south of the Tropic of Cancer. When this line of latitude

3705-401: The two, centered on the Equator, is the tropics . In the year 2000, more than half of the world's population lived north of the Tropic of Cancer. On the Tropic of Cancer there are approximately 13 hours, 35 minutes of daylight during the summer solstice. During the winter solstice, there are 10 hours, 41 minutes of daylight. Using 23°26'N for the Tropic of Cancer, the tropic passes through

3770-410: The west African coast and Brazil. Unlike the VOC, the GWC had no right to deploy military troops. When the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a free hand to re-wage war with Spain. A Groot Desseyn ("grand design") was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa and the Americas, so as to dominate the sugar and slave trade. When this plan failed, privateering became one of

3835-432: The young Dutch Republic due to the city's position of economic power within the Republic. Gerrit was a wealthy patrician, politician (burgomaster in 1603), international grain merchant and beer brewer. and threw his work in the Amsterdam Vroedschap and as one of the founders of the East India Company, he was able to launch the careers of his sons, grandchildren and nephews. Cornelis' oldest brother Andries Bicker ruled

3900-414: Was able to push through under Bicker's leadership. The position of the Bicker family was then more powerful than any generation of mayors before or after them. In 1648, due to the immense political pressure from the entire Bicker-De Graeff Clan the United Netherlands entered into peace negotiations with Spain in order to end the Eighty Years' War with the Peace of Münster . After the peace treaties and

3965-459: Was appointed a captain in the schutterij (civic guard). In 1641 Jacob Bicker succeeded him at the Wisselbank. In 1628, 1635, 1637, 1638, 1642 he was appointed schepen . Cornelis Bicker was member even of the "Bickerse league ", which included his brothers Andries , Jacob , Jan , and their distant cousins, the brothers Roelof, Jacob and Hendrick Jacobsz Bicker. They opposed the stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange , who intended

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4030-427: Was named in the last centuries BCE , the Sun was in the constellation Cancer ( Latin : Crab ) at the June solstice (90° ecliptic longitude ). Due to the precession of the equinoxes , this is no longer the case; today the Sun is in constellation Taurus at the June solstice. The word "tropic" itself comes from the Greek "trope (τροπή)", meaning turn (change of direction or circumstance), inclination, referring to

4095-400: Was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Like the VOC, the GWC had five offices, called chambers ( kamers ), in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hoorn, Middelburg and Groningen, of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX (the Nineteen Gentlemen, as opposed to the Heeren XVII who controlled

4160-421: Was popular almost everywhere, the family Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck sold its property in the colony of Surinam . The GWC participated in a bigger share together with the Society of Suriname . Many planters in Surinam and the Caribbean came into financial trouble because of the mortgages ( Crisis of 1772 ); the demand for slaves dropped. In 1775, the last slave ship entered the port of Willemstad . From 1780 on

4225-498: Was the main cause of the slow, half-hearted policy, which would eventually lead to losing the colony. In 1647, the company made a restart using 1.5 million guilders, capital of the VOC. The States General took responsibility for the warfare in Brazil. Due to the Peace of Westphalia , the attacks on Spanish shipping were forbidden to the GWC. The Portuguese succeeded in the recapture of Angola . Many merchants from Amsterdam and Zeeland decided to work with marine and merchants from

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