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50-538: In the nineteenth century, miniature objects became a fad , especially in England where King Rama VI was educated. Dusit Thani was an example of the miniature object at that period. The intention of the city was to show equality of all citizens in a democratic society. Craftsmen were hired by noble families in Bangkok in order to reconstruct their houses in the miniature city. They had to register and buy land to become citizens in

100-496: A constitutional monarchy , replaced 700 years of absolute monarchy. However, Dusit Thani had a different path. The model city was poorly preserved after the king's death and had never been repaired. Only a few surviving buildings were moved to the gardens of the Monk's Hospital. They were either covered by dust or ended up in trash cans. No remains are left to be seen today except for a tiny bandstand. Scale model A scale model

150-405: A model represents the proportional ratio of a linear dimension of the model to the same feature of the original. Examples include a 3-dimensional scale model of a building or the scale drawings of the elevations or plans of a building. In such cases the scale is dimensionless and exact throughout the model or drawing. The scale can be expressed in four ways: in words (a lexical scale), as

200-688: A wind tunnel or in free flight. Models of scale large enough to permit piloting may be used for testing of a proposed design. Architecture firms usually employ model makers or contract model making firms to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are traditionally hand-made, but advances in technology have turned the industry into a very high tech process than can involve Class IV laser cutters , five-axis CNC machines as well as rapid prototyping or 3D printing . Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc. With elements similar to miniature wargaming , building models and architectural models ,

250-633: A century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels, and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots , masters and officers ). They are usually at 1:25 scale. Models, and their constituent parts, can be built out of

300-604: A color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production. Flying model aircraft are built for aerodynamic research and for recreation ( aeromodeling ). Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However

350-417: A democratic model city. It was difficult for Thais at that time to understand the king, who was Westernized, and his concept of democracy because it was unfamiliar and hard to comprehend. Dusit Thani was a Thai miniature city that was designed as a model city, established by King Vajiravudh or King Rama VI of Thailand. It was reported that Dusit Park was originally sited as the location of the city, which later

400-472: A dimensional scale of 1 cm to 20 mph. Map scales require careful discussion. A town plan may be constructed as an exact scale drawing, but for larger areas a map projection is necessary and no projection can represent the Earth's surface at a uniform scale. In general the scale of a projection depends on position and direction. The variation of scale may be considerable in small scale maps which may cover

450-423: A field of study for thousands of years and many of the great problems have been solved using analytical and numerical techniques, many problems are still too complicated to understand in an analytical manner or the current numerical techniques lack real world confirmation. When this is the case, for example a complicated reinforced concrete beam-column-slab interaction problem, scale models can be constructed observing

500-410: A fire brigade, a bank, flying bridges, trade centers, canal locks, and newspapers, were represented in the city. Later, Dusit Thani was relocated to Phraya Thai where it was redeveloped. The project did not proceed beyond its model scale. The constitution would be used only in the miniature city but not nationwide. The constitution of Dusit Thani was written by King Rama VI and it was administered by

550-553: A high degree of surface detail, and electrical features such as interior lighting and animation. For Star Trek: The Original Series , a 33-inch (0.84 m) pre-production model of the Starship Enterprise was created in December 1964, mostly of pine, with Plexiglass and brass details, at a cost of $ 600. This was followed by a 135.5-inch (3.44 m) production model constructed from plaster, sheet metal, and wood, at ten times

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600-735: A plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for military use, to visualize building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving fortifications. In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain , were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which would be 1:1320 scale, but are not necessarily accurate. Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over

650-672: A prototype gauge of 2 ft ( 610 mm ). The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often arrived at through the following roundabout process: German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to construct their products from blueprints dimensioned in inches. "Four mm to the foot" yielded the 1:76.2 size of the British "OO scale", which is anomalously used on the standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes. Today, most scale sizes are internationally standardized, with

700-404: A ratio, as a fraction and as a graphical (bar) scale . Thus on an architect's drawing one might read 'one centimeter to one meter', 1:100, 1/100, or ⁠ 1 / 100 ⁠ . A bar scale would also normally appear on the drawing. Colon may also be substituted with a specific, slightly raised ratio symbol U+2236 ∶ RATIO ( ∶ ), ie. "1∶100". In general

750-423: A representation may involve more than one scale at the same time. For example, a drawing showing a new road in elevation might use different horizontal and vertical scales. An elevation of a bridge might be annotated with arrows with a length proportional to a force loading, as in 1 cm to 1000 newtons: this is an example of a dimensional scale. A weather map at some scale may be annotated with wind arrows at

800-566: A scale of 1:43.5. Later, the European authority of model railroad firms MOROP declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45, to allow wheel, tire , and splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections. N scale trains were first commercially produced at 1:160 scale in 1962 by the Arnold company of Nuremberg . This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as

850-406: A series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72 , and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic . Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection molded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter

900-559: A structural scale model under static loading conditions in the elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques . Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models". Aerodynamic models may be used for testing new aircraft designs in

950-468: A thick form to be carefully applied to a bonding surface, or in a thin liquid which is applied into a joint by capillary action using a brush or syringe needle. Ethyl cyanoacrylate (ECA) aka "super-glue", or fast-setting epoxy , must be used to bond styrene to other materials. Glossy colors are generally used for car and commercial truck exteriors. Flat colors are generally desirable for military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft. Metallic colors simulate

1000-614: A variety of materials, such as: This includes injection molded or extruded plastics such as polystyrene , acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), butyrate , and clear acrylic and copolyester ( PETG ). Parts can also be cast from synthetic resins . Pine wood is sometimes used; balsa wood , a light wood, is good for flying airplane models. Aluminum or brass can be used in tubing form, or can be used in flat sheets with photo-etched surface detail. Model figures used in wargaming can be made of white metal . Styrene parts are welded together using plastic cement , which comes both in

1050-505: A wood such as pine, with plastic wheels on metal axles, which run on inclined tracks. The most famous wood racing event is the Boy Scouts of America 's annual Pinewood Derby which debuted in 1953. Entry is open to Cub Scouts . Entrants are supplied with a kit containing a wooden block out of which to carve the body, four plastic wheels, and four axle nails; or they may purchase their own commercially available kit. Regulations generally limit

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1100-418: Is 4' 8.5". Therefore, a model railroad reduces that standard to scale. An HO scale model railroad runs on track that is 1/87 of 4' 8.5", or 0.649" from rail to rail. Today model railroads are more typically referred to using the term scale instead of "gauge" in most usages. Confusion arises from indiscriminate use of "scale" and "gauge" synonymously. The word "scale" strictly refers to the proportional size of

1150-597: Is a physical model that is geometrically similar to an object (known as the prototype ). Scale models are generally smaller than large prototypes such as vehicles, buildings, or people; but may be larger than small prototypes such as anatomical structures or subatomic particles. Models built to the same scale as the prototype are called mockups . Scale models are used as tools in engineering design and testing, promotion and sales, filmmaking special effects, military strategy, and hobbies such as rail transport modeling , wargaming and racing; and as toys. Model building

1200-422: Is also pursued as a hobby for the sake of artisanship . Scale models are constructed of plastic , wood, or metal. They are usually painted with enamel , lacquer , or acrylics . Model prototypes include all types of vehicles (railroad trains, cars, trucks, military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft), buildings, people, and science fiction themes (spaceships and robots). Models are built to scale , defined as

1250-420: Is done in a variety of scales from 1:4 to 1:450 ( T scale ). Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby: gauge gauge Model railroads originally used the term gauge , which refers to the distance between the rails , just as full-size railroads continue to do. Although model railroads were also built to different gauges, standard gauge in full-size railroads

1300-433: Is no fixed dividing line between small and large scales.) A scale model is a representation or copy of an object that is larger or smaller than the actual size of the object being represented. Very often the scale model is smaller than the original and used as a guide to making the object in full size. In mathematics , the idea of geometric scaling can be generalized. The scale between two mathematical objects need not be

1350-1312: The Aurora Plastics Corporation . However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale. Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled ( snap-fit ), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Popular aircraft scales are, in order of increasing size: 1:144 , 1:87 (also known as HO, or "half-O scale") , 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48 (known as "O scale") , 1:32 , 1:24 , 1:16 , 1:6, and 1:4 . Some European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50 . The highest quality models are made from injection molded plastic or cast resin . Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for

1400-513: The 1950s. The first model rocket engine was designed in 1954 by Orville Carlisle , a licensed pyrotechnics expert, and his brother Robert, a model airplane enthusiast. Static model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V.close to 4 mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are most frequently used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144 , and 1:200 , but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in

1450-564: The Blue and the Red political groups with representatives selected by elections. In 1925, the king died, which caused a halt to the miniature city project and the city was abandoned. There were some attempts by Thai students, who were educated in Europe and had been interested in democracy and modernization, to carry on the ideal of democracy. Seven years after the king's death a revolution occurred. A new government,

1500-587: The Japanese import Tamiya . Some beginner's level kits avoid the necessity to paint the model by adding pigments and chrome plating to the plastic. Decals are generally applied to models after painting and assembly, to add details such as lettering, flags, insignia, or other decorations too small to paint. Water transfer (slide-on) decals are generally used, but beginner's kits may use dry transfer stickers instead. Model railroading (US and Canada; known as railway modelling in UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland)

1550-498: The US and Humbrol (now Hornby ) in the UK. Lacquer paint produces a hard, durable finish, and requires its own lacquer thinner . Enamels have been generally replaced in popularity by acrylic paint , which is water-based. Advantages include decreased toxicity and chemical smell, and brushes clean with soap and water. Disadvantages include possibly limited durability on plastic, requiring priming coats, at least two color coats, and allowing adequate cure time. Popular brands include

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1600-464: The aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Flying model aircraft are one of three types: free flight , control line , and radio controlled . Some flying model kits take many hours to put together, and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly . Model rocketry dates back to the Space Race of

1650-597: The car's weight to 5 ounces (141.7 g), width to 2.75 inches (7.0 cm), and length to 7 inches (17.8 cm). The rules permit the cars to be augmented with tungsten carbide weights up to the limit, and graphite axle lubricant. Miniature wargames are played using miniature soldiers, artillery, vehicles, and scenery built by the players. Before the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), visual effects of vehicles such as marine ships and spaceships were created by filming "miniature" models. These were considerably larger scale than hobby versions to allow inclusion of

1700-570: The city. They could freely express and participate in debating public affairs in the city. Two political groups were founded in Dusit Thani, the Blue Party and the Red Party. King Rama VI adopted the name "MR. Rama" to participate in the city. The reign of King Rama VI is considered one of the golden ages of Thai literature. He was hoping to educate his citizens about democracy and set up Dusit Thani,

1750-513: The cost of the first. As the Enterprise was originally reckoned to be 947 feet (289 m) long, this put the models at 1:344 and 1:83.9 scale respectively. The Polar Lights company sells a large plastic Enterprise model kit essentially the same size as the first TV model, in 1:350 scale (32 inches long). It can be purchased with an optional electronic lighting and animation (rotating engine domes) kit. Although structural engineering has been

1800-540: The first Star Wars film and the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica also spawned lines of licensed model kits in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and smaller ships, to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the Death Stars and Super Star Destroyers , even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released

1850-416: The globe. In large scale maps of small areas the variation of scale may be insignificant for most purposes but it is always present. The scale of a map projection must be interpreted as a nominal scale. (The usage large and small in relation to map scales relates to their expressions as fractions. The fraction 1/10,000 used for a local map is much larger than the 1/100,000,000 used for a global map. There

1900-604: The model, while "gauge" strictly applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO gauge", "N gauge, "Z gauge", etc. This is further complicated by the fact some scales use several different gauges; for example, HO scale uses 16.5 mm as the standard gauge of 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ( 1,435 mm ), 12 mm to represent 1,000 mm ( 3 ft  3 + 3 ⁄ 8  in ) gauge (HOm), and 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ) (HOn3-1/2), and 9 mm to represent

1950-507: The more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in 1:200 , 1:250 , 1:350 , 1:400 , 1:500 and 1:600 scale . The majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there are some modelers who 'bend' history by modeling aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in

2000-1247: The most concerned with accuracy and detail. Kit assembly is done either "out of the box", or with modifications (known as " kitbashing "). Many kit manufacturers, for various reasons leave something to be desired in terms of accuracy, but using the kit parts as a baseline and adding after-market conversion kits, alternative decal sets, and some scratch building can correct this without the master craftsmanship or time expenditure required by scratch building. Scale models are generally of two types: static and animated . They are used for several purposes in many fields, including: Most hobbyist's models are built for static display, but some have operational features, such as railroad trains that roll, and airplanes and rockets that fly. Flying airplane models may be simple unpowered gliders, or have sophisticated features such as radio control powered by miniature methanol/nitromethane engines . Cars in 1:24, 1:32, or HO scale are fitted with externally powered electric motors which run on plastic road track fitted with metal rails on slots. The track may or may not be augmented with miniature buildings, trees, and people. Children can build and race their own gravity-powered, uncontrolled cars carved out of

2050-540: The nation. The city was an experiment in democratic constitution which the king, himself, chose to initiate. Dusit Park was a rice field before modernizing. The miniature model city was planned on one acre of the Dusit Park or the Royal Amporn Gardens near the present Congress building. Buildings inside Dusit Thani were scaled to one-fifteenth life size. Palaces, hotels, hospitals, a clock tower, 12-story buildings,

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2100-413: The notable exceptions of O scale and N scale. There are three different versions of the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version follows a dollhouse scale of 1:48, sometimes called "quarter-gauge" as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans, so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to

2150-425: The prototype corresponding to one inch on the model, e.g. 1:48 scale = "1 inch to 4 feet", 1:96 = "1 inch to 8 feet", etc. Models are obtained by three different means: kit assembly , scratch building , and collecting pre-assembled models. Scratch building is the only option available to structural engineers, and among hobbyists requires the highest level of skill, craftsmanship, and time; scratch builders tend to be

2200-414: The ratio of any linear dimension of the model to the equivalent dimension on the full-size subject (called the "prototype"), expressed either as a ratio with a colon (ex. 1:8 scale), or as a fraction with a slash (1/8 scale). This designates that 1 inch (or centimeter) on the model represents 8 such units on the prototype. In English-speaking countries, the scale is sometimes expressed as the number of feet on

2250-634: The requirements of similitude to study the problem. Many structural labs exist to test these structural scale models such as the Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois, UC. For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped into three categories: loading , geometry , and material properties . A good reference for considering scales for

2300-492: The scale of 1:125. Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. In 1966, with the release of the television show Star Trek: The Original Series , AMT corporation released an 18-inch (46 cm) model of the Starship Enterprise . This has been followed over the decades by a complete array of various starships, shuttlecraft , and space stations from the Star Trek franchise. The 1977 release of

2350-560: The scale of 1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in 1:32 scale , and rolling toys are often made on the scale 1:64 scale . Chinese die-cast manufacturers have introduced 1/72 scale into their range. The smaller scales are usually die-cast cars and not the in the class as model cars. Except in rare occasions, Johnny Lightning and Ertl-made die-cast cars were sold as kits for buyers to assemble. Model cars are also used in car design . Scale (ratio) The scale ratio of

2400-467: The series of cars in 1:43 scale , as it has the widest distribution in the world. In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram , and later Tamiya , first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: 1:24 scale , while the firms AMT , Jo-Han , and Revell chose

2450-504: The various metals (silver, gold, aluminum, steel, copper, brass, etc.) Enamel paint has classically been used for model making and is generally considered the most durable paint for plastics. It is available in small bottles for brushing and airbrushing , and aerosol spray cans . Disadvantages include toxicity and a strong chemical smell of the paint and its mineral spirit thinner /brush cleaner. Modern enamels are made of alkyd resin to limit toxicity. Popular brands include Testor 's in

2500-399: Was moved to Phraya Thai at the end of 1919. "Dusit Thani" means 'town in heaven'. "Dusit" is the name of the fourth of the six levels of Buddhist heaven and "Thani" means 'town'. King Rama VI was interested in democracy as he was the first Thai king to go to study abroad in England and to pursue the intention of his father (King Rama V) and grandfather (King Rama IV) of bringing modernization to

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