135-560: Brigadier Dudley Wrangel Clarke , CB , CBE ( 27 April 1899 – 7 May 1974 ) was an officer in the British Army , known as a pioneer of military deception operations during the Second World War . His ideas for combining fictional orders of battle, visual deception and double agents helped define Allied deception strategy during the war, for which he has been referred to as "the greatest British deceiver of WW2". Clarke
270-467: A Royal Navy attaché – and worked with them to open channels of misinformation to the enemy. In Wolfson, Clarke had found an important resource and, in his own words, began "a long and profitable partnership for Deception and MI9 matters in Turkey which was to last for the rest of the war". Clarke left Istanbul on 16 May , travelling covertly back to Egypt via Syria and Lebanon in order to reconnoitre
405-439: A brigadier was established by Philip V in 1702 as an intermediate rank between colonel and true generals . In some Iberoamerican republics (see below), the rank survived after independence. In Spain , brigadiers came to be considered full generals in 1871, and in 1889 they were renamed general de brigada . The historical rank is distinct from the current NCO rank of brigada , although sometimes translators confuse
540-431: A local board of health was established for the town. The local board district covered part of the parish of Watford and part of the neighbouring parish of Bushey . The Watford Local Board District came into effect on 15 August 1850, and the first board was elected the following month. The local board was responsible for building the town's waterworks and sewers. For a time the board held its meetings at an upper room of
675-641: A NATO rank code of OR-8 (and is thus a senior NCO). The Spanish rank brigada is distinct from the Spanish-language brigadier [-general] used for senior officers in Latin America (and historically in Spain). Watford Holy Rood Church , Watford ( / ˈ w ɒ t f ər d / ) is a town and borough in Hertfordshire , England, 15 miles (24 km) northwest of Central London , on
810-536: A brigade (including his own, but later the rank was also awarded to lieutenant-colonels, which allowed for the promotion of an officer who did not have his own regiment). Before the rank of brigadier of the armies was dissolved in 1788, it was materialized by the wearing of a single star. And when it was abolished that year, the number of stars of its immediate superiors was not modified, which explains why today French generals have one more star on their insignia than their foreign counterparts (notably American). Note that
945-477: A brigade. The army brigadier wears the colonel's uniform and insignia. The rank was definitively abolished in 1945. Until 1788, a rank of brigadier des armées ("brigadier of the armies"), which could be described as a senior colonel or junior brigade commander, was used in the French Army . The normal brigade command rank was field marshal ( maréchal de camp ) (which elsewhere is a more senior rank). During
1080-654: A car and driver) Clarke used his charisma to obtain them anyway. In 1944 the Allies finally focused on France and the Western Front. Bevan and the London Controlling Section were tasked with inventing an elaborate masquerade to cover the Normandy invasion, a vindication of the theory pioneered by Clarke and Wavell: that every real operation should have a complementary deception. The focus on France left Clarke supporting
1215-523: A community centre, cricket squares, football pitches and Woodside Leisure Centre. Woodside Stadium is home to Watford Harriers Athletics Club and hosts national level events such as the British Milers Club Grand Prix. There are 92 nationally listed buildings in Watford. These include St Mary's Church , which dates to the 12th century, and Holy Rood Church which dates to 1890. St Mary's
1350-651: A convincing threat to Crete and the Greek mainland. For this new deception 'A' Force had strong support from London – in April the famed Operation Mincemeat was used to help bolster Clarke's deceptive thrust toward Crete. By this point 'A' Force had much expanded beyond the small flat in Cairo, adding representatives with the army in Sicily and offices in Algiers and Nairobi. Clarke roved around
1485-440: A cover, he was employed to set up a regional organisation for MI9 , a British escape and evasion department. The following year Clarke received a war establishment and set up Advanced Headquarters 'A' Force with a small staff to plan deception operations. Once satisfied with the department's structure, he pursued intelligence contacts in Turkey and Spain. In late 1941 Clarke was called to London, where his deception work had come to
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#17328594081421620-641: A deception operation to convince Rommel that his advance on Gazala was heading into a trap. The plan, which involved Victor Jones creating a strong fictional force of 300 tanks on the British right hand flank, was in full swing during February. The operation appears to have had limited effect. Rommel delayed his advance until May, when British forces were routed at the Battle of Gazala and the Germans resumed their push toward Egypt. Upon his return to Cairo, on 15 February , Clarke
1755-816: A department similar to 'A' Force should be created in London. Clarke was offered the job, reporting directly to the Chiefs of Staff and the War Cabinet . He declined, citing loyalty to the Middle East, but his decision was in large part due to the greater operational freedom and status he enjoyed in North Africa. The London Controlling Section was formed and, after some disorganisation, prospered under John Bevan , with whom Clarke would later work closely. Pleased with his success in London, Clarke returned to Lisbon on 12 October posing as
1890-517: A disinformation campaign, Operation Treatment. On 9 September Clarke was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). The citation recognised his efforts in setting up A-Force, but referred to its less clandestine MI9 escape and evasion work. Clarke had his mind on other things besides awards and El Alamein. He delegated much of the ongoing planning to 'A' Force staff, as the department
2025-411: A general officer rank, it is always considered equivalent to the brigadier general and brigade general rank of other countries. In NATO forces, brigadier is OF-6 on the rank scale. "The grade of brigadier-general, also called, almost interchangeably, brigadier, first appeared in the British army during the reign of King James II. A warrant of 1705 placed the grade directly below major-general, but
2160-550: A hand in the formation of three famed military units. Phantom forces, of which the SAS was only Clarke's first, played a crucial part in deception operations during the war – including along the Western Front in 1944 – but for the rest of April 1941 he worked hard to build his department. Clarke's "War Establishment" granted him three officers, several enlisted men and a small array of vehicles. A recruitment drive paid off in
2295-548: A journalist for The Times named "Wrangal Craker". His aim was to carry on the semi-undercover work of spreading rumours and misinformation to the Germans. Later that month, in Madrid, he was arrested while dressed as a woman. Guy Liddell , wartime counter-espionage head at MI5 , said of the incident: "I'm afraid to say that after his stay in Lisbon as a bogus journalist he has got rather over-confident about his powers as an agent." Clarke
2430-532: A larger Muslim and Hindu population than the average. Watford has two tiers of local government, at district (borough) and county level: Watford Borough Council and Hertfordshire County Council . Watford is one of only 15 authorities in England and Wales headed by a directly elected mayor . Dorothy Thornhill was the first directly elected mayor of Watford , elected in May 2002 and re-elected in May 2006 and May 2010. She
2565-689: A major part in the successes achieved in this theatre have been due in large measure to the originality of thought, imagination and initiative displayed by this officer. The citation was announced in The London Gazette on 22 February 1945. Clarke received a further honour that year, when on 19 June he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). On 2 April 1946 he was awarded the American Legion of Merit . Brigadier Brigadier ( / ˌ b r ɪ ɡ ə ˈ d ɪər / BRIG -ə- DEER )
2700-634: A military assistant to Sir John Dill, now a full general and Chief of the General Staff , at the War Office. On 30 May 1940 , inspired by childhood recollections of similar Boer forces as well as experiences during the Arab uprising in Palestine, Clarke sketched out an idea for small amphibious raiding parties, called Commandos. On 5 June , while Dill was inspecting the troops evacuated from Dunkirk , Clarke suggested
2835-524: A motley collection of air and armour under the command of Colonel Jack Evetts . Clarke, as one of only two staff officers , was faced with organising an effective response to guerrilla warfare . He first set to work improving communications between the small Royal Air Force contingent and the army. It was here that he met Tony Simonds, an intelligence officer sent to the region with express orders to set up an intelligence network. Clarke and Simonds worked to feed reliable information to British forces. Toward
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#17328594081422970-457: A scheme to mislead Italian forces into expecting an invasion of Italian Somaliland instead of Eritrea , the real Allied target. Operation Camilla fooled the Italian leadership completely but instead of diverting troops as the British hoped, they withdrew their forces into Eritrea. From this failure Clarke learned a first lesson, one he would teach to many other deception officers during the war: that
3105-471: A short branch line via Watford High Street to Rickmansworth (Church Street) , and another branch was added to Croxley Green in 1912. The original plan was to extend the Rickmansworth line south connecting Watford to Uxbridge ; this scheme failed and both the Rickmansworth and Croxley branches closed. Watford's population had risen to 17,063 by 1891 to become very cramped. Local landowners sold land for
3240-456: A single parish called Watford. Watford became a municipal borough on 18 October 1922 when it was granted a charter of incorporation. The council was granted a coat of arms on 16 October 1922, two days before it became a borough. Upton House at 14 High Street continued to serve as the meeting place and offices for Watford Urban District Council and then Watford Borough Council until 1940. In 1938 work began on building Watford Town Hall at
3375-474: A subsection of 'A' Force devoted to forgeries. With his office organised, Clarke was happy to leave day-to-day management to his staff. He then embarked on a trip to Turkey, where he worked to establish a network of misinformation as well as carry out his MI9 role. There he met two important figures in Turkish intelligence – Brigadier Allan Arnold , the British military attaché , and Commander Vladimir Wolfson,
3510-474: Is a military rank , the seniority of which depends on the country. In some countries, it is a senior rank above colonel , equivalent to a brigadier general or commodore , typically commanding a brigade of several thousand soldiers. In other countries, it is a non-commissioned rank. The word and rank of "Brigadier" originates from France . In the French Army , the Brigadier des Armées du Roi (Brigadier of
3645-421: Is a Grade-II-listed building, now in the middle of a high density housing development, it and was for many years a second-hand car dealership. Watford Junction railway station is situated to the north east of the town centre. These developments gave the town excellent communications and stimulated its industrial growth during the 19th and 20th centuries. The Grand Union Canal, allowed coal to be brought into
3780-517: Is a Sparrows Herne Trust plaque. In 1778, Daniel Defoe described Watford as a "genteel market town, very long, having but one street." Watford remained an agricultural community with some cottage industry for many centuries. The Industrial Revolution brought the Grand Junction Canal (now Grand Union Canal ) from 1798 and the London and Birmingham Railway from 1837, both located here for
3915-515: Is believed to be the combination of 'caeg', a person's name, and 'hoe', meaning a spur of land. When the land was granted to Sir Richard Morrison in the 16th century, it was called 'Cayshobury', with 'bury' indicating a manor. Cassiobury Park was formed from the grounds of Cassiobury House and consists of 190 acres (0.77 km ) of open space. The house was demolished in 1927 and the Cassiobury Gates in 1970, for road widening. In July 2007,
4050-459: Is evidence of some limited prehistoric occupation around the Watford area, with a few Celtic and Roman finds, though there is no evidence of a settlement until much later. Watford stands where the River Colne could be crossed on an ancient trackway from the southeast to the northwest. Watford's High Street follows the line of part of this route. The town was located on the first dry ground above
4185-638: Is noted for its interior which was renovated in 1850 by the architect George Gilbert Scott and includes fine oak pews decorated in the Gothic Revival style. It also contains the Essex Chapel, which served at the burial place of the nobility of the Cassiobury Estate, including the Earls of Essex . The chapel contains a number of large, ornate marble tombs and memorials dating from the 16th century and later, and
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4320-548: Is one of the places marking the boundary of "Oxanhaege". It is not mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, when this area was part of St Albans Abbey's manor of Cashio. In the 12th century the Abbey was granted a charter allowing it to hold a market here, and the building of St Mary's Church began. The settlement's location helped it to grow, since as well as trade along this north–south through route it possessed good communications into
4455-490: Is otherwise similar to that of a colonel (colonel's rank insignia have a crown/emblem with two stars/"pips".) The Canadian Army used the rank of brigadier (following British tradition, with identical insignia) until the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968. The rank then became brigadier-general with the insignia of St. Edward's Crown surmounting a crossed sword and baton over one gold maple leaf. The rank of
4590-462: Is the rank below brigade general , both ranks falling between colonel and divisional general. However, both the Argentine and Brazilian Air Forces use a curious system of variations on brigadier for all ( Argentina ) or most ( Brazil ) general officers. The origin of this system is not entirely clear, but in the case of Argentina may be due to army air units being commanded by brigade generals before
4725-516: The brigadier rank is the reason that there is no one-star insignia in the French Army. The rank of brigadier is still nonetheless used in some regiments as an equivalent of corporal . By extension, this also applies to the gendarmerie , equivalent in rank to a corporal in the infantry. In many countries, especially those formerly part of the British Empire , a brigadier is either
4860-464: The Earls of Essex . The town developed next to the River Colne on land belonging to St Albans Abbey . In the 12th century, a charter was granted allowing a market, and the building of St Mary's Church began. The town grew partly due to travellers going to Berkhamsted Castle and the royal palace at Kings Langley . A mansion was built at Cassiobury in the 16th century. This was partly rebuilt in
4995-517: The French Revolution , the ranks of brigadier des armées and maréchal de camp were replaced by brigade general ( général de brigade ). In common with many countries, France now uses the officer rank of brigade general (Général de brigade) instead of a "brigadier" rank. The brigadier des armées held a one-star insignia, while the général de brigade inherited the maréchal de camp two-stars insignia. The disappearance of
5130-528: The Indonesian Police , Army and Marine Corps respectively. In the Italian Carabinieri and Guardia di Finanza , the ranks of vice-brigadier ( vice brigadiere ), brigadier ( brigadiere ), and chief brigadier ( brigadiere capo ) correspond roughly to the army ranks based on sergeant . The rank of brigade general ( generale di brigata ) is used throughout the armed forces as
5265-569: The Local Government Act 1894 and a municipal borough by grant of a charter in 1922. The borough, which had 102,246 inhabitants in the 2021 census (up from 90,301 inhabitants at the 2011 census, an increase of 13.23%), is separated from Greater London to the south by Three Rivers District . Watford Borough Council is the local authority with the Mayor of Watford as its head – one of only 18 directly elected mayors in England and Wales . There
5400-610: The Royal Artillery Officers Dramatic Club and was responsible for the Royal Artillery's display at the 1925 Royal Tournament . In 1933 and 1934, he wrote and directed two Christmas pantomimes . In 1936, Clarke was posted, at his request, to Palestine , just in time to participate in the 1936 Arab uprising . The British presence in Jerusalem was minimal at that time, comprising two battalions of infantry and
5535-505: The modernist architect Ernő Goldfinger , the designer Robin Day conceived the polypropylene stacking chair , now recognised as a classic of modern design. Although Hille left the area in 1983, the listed Goldfinger building still stands on St Albans Road. Mod culture found expression through clubs such as the Ace of Herts in the 1960s. The de Havilland factory at Leavesden was responsible for
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5670-514: The (largely political) deceptions in the Middle Eastern region. However, by the end of the summer 'A' Force's usefulness in operations had reached its end. On 13 October Clarke held a party (true to form, at a Cairo cinema) for the remaining members of the department. Command of the remaining tactical deceptions was transferred to Caserta . Clarke, along with a skeleton staff, remained in Egypt to tie up
5805-408: The 17th century and another country house was built at The Grove . The Grand Junction Canal in 1798 and the London and Birmingham Railway in 1837 resulted in Watford's rapid growth, with paper-making mills such as John Dickinson at Croxley, influencing the development of printing in the town. Two brewers, Benskins and Sedgwicks , amalgamated and flourished in the town until their closure in
5940-568: The 1990s, opened officially in June 1992. The owners of the shopping centre, Capital Shopping Centres, changed their name to Intu , resulting in The Harlequin changing name to "intu Watford" from May 2013. Carrying forward £4.5 billion of debt into 2020, the company was not able to survive the retail downturn due to the COVID-19 crisis , and went into administration in June 2020. The council owns part of
6075-495: The 1st SAS. At first the plan was intended to deter the Axis from extending an offensive against the USSR southward into the region. After a slow start, in early 1942, Cascade began to take effect. As early as May, Axis intelligence began to overestimate Allied strength by nearly 30%. In July the operation expanded. Clarke introduced more and more fictitious divisions and by the end of the year
6210-525: The 2006 World Golf Championship and the 2013 Bilderberg Conference , took place at The Grove hotel . The town was home to the Scammell Lorries factory from 1922 until 1988. The site is now a residential area. Tandon Motorcycles , founded by Devdutt Tandon, were manufactured in Colne Way from 1947 until 1959. The name Cassiobury has had various spellings over time. It is derived from 'Caegshoe', which
6345-610: The 6th so he adopted the guise of 'A' Force. The name was intentionally vague, designed to add to the mythology of his fictional airborne unit. Although at first only a cover name, the department soon became real and took control of deception in the region. On 28 March 1941 Clarke requisitioned No. 6 Sharia Kasr-el-Nill , Cairo – opposite 6th Division HQ and below a brothel – and in April received an official mandate for his department. "Advanced Headquarters 'A' Force" moved into their new offices on 8 April 1941 and Clarke began to recruit his staff. The name SAS came mainly from
6480-615: The Allied push through Italy. He noted that "the peculiar circumstances of the Mediterranean Theater made it a sheer impossibility to have a hiatus of more than a week or two duration between Deception Plans." In quick succession 'A' Force executed deceptions that included the operations Oakenfield and Zeppelin . Later that spring Clarke was inspired by a war film, Five Graves to Cairo , to create Operation Copperhead . Bernard Montgomery had recently been moved to England to take command of
6615-557: The British Army in Libya. Auchinleck rallied his forces at El Alamein and asked Clarke to draft plans for delaying the Axis advance, giving the Allies time to withdraw. Operation Sentinel was designed to convince Rommel, using camouflage, fakery and radio deception, that substantial British armour sat between him and the retreating Eighth Army. In spite of his success at El Alamein Auchinleck
6750-652: The French gendarmerie and in "mounted" arms of the French army, the brigadier ranks are: In the French National Police , the sub-officer variations are used for non-commissioned officers are: In the Indonesian National Police force, this rank is referred to as the Constable ranks in the regular police units. It is equivalent to the "sergeant" rank in the armed forces. This rank is the most junior rank in
6885-669: The German advances. Before leaving for the Eighth Army headquarters in Gazala , Clarke left a note, which he later described as "begging for the whole question of deception machinery in the Command to be reviewed completely afresh during his absence." Once on the ground he found a shaken army conducting a hesitant withdrawal, and in urgent need of delaying tactics to slow the German advance. After brainstorming with his team in Cairo, Clarke envisioned Bastion,
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#17328594081427020-442: The Germans had accepted many of them as real formations. By 1944, when the operation was superseded, it had completely fooled the enemy. Cascade was a major success for Clarke; it supported most of the subsequent major deceptions for the remainder of the war (by providing established fictional units) and proved that deception on a grand scale was a realistic strategy. In May, before Cascade had become fully operational, Rommel defeated
7155-497: The Italians. He dressed two soldiers in "1 SAS" uniforms and set them to wander around Cairo, Port Said and Alexandria hinting at missions in Crete or Libya . By March, Clarke had another scheme in the works, a deception cover for Operation Cordite, the 6th Infantry Division invasion of the Greek island Rhodes . His work interviewing locals about the island could not be associated with
7290-536: The King's Armies) was a general officer rank, created in 1657. It was an intermediate between the rank of Mestre de camp and that of Maréchal de camp . The rank was first created in the cavalry at the instigation of Marshal Turenne on June 8, 1657, then in the infantry on March 17, 1668, and in the dragoons on April 15, 1672. In peacetime, the brigadier commanded his regiment and, in maneuvers or in wartime, he commanded two or three - or even four - regiments combined to form
7425-471: The Middle East had caught the attention of high command, and Clarke was asked to write a paper about his experiences. While in London, Clarke met many of his counterparts on the Western Front. He attended meetings of the Twenty Committee and Chiefs of Staff Committee (which was chaired by his old commander, John Dill). The paper on deception met with approval in the establishment and it was decided that
7560-674: The Officers Training corps Eager to be in active service, Clarke applied to sit the Army Entrance Exam in 1915, as soon as he had reached the minimum age of sixteen and a half. To his own surprise (he had petitioned the Charterhouse headmaster for a recommendation, allowing him to bypass the exam, on the expectation of failing), he passed and in early 1916 attended the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich . In November 1916, Clarke
7695-496: The Royal Artillery in 1919 and had a varied career doing intelligence work in the Middle East. In 1936 he was posted to Palestine, where he helped organise the British repression of the 1936 Arab uprising . During the Second World War, Clarke joined John Dill 's staff, where he proposed and helped to implement an idea for raids into France – an early form of the British Commandos. In 1940, Archibald Wavell called Clarke to Cairo and placed him in charge of strategic deception. As
7830-428: The appointment was always considered temporary and not continuous. The British were ambiguous over whether the holder was considered a general officer or a senior field grade office". The title is derived from the equivalent British rank of brigadier-general, used until 1922 and still used in many countries. "Brigadier" was already in use as a generic term for a commander of a brigade irrespective of specific rank. Until
7965-402: The area was part of the three seat constituency of Hertfordshire . The council have made twinning links with five towns. The first was Mainz , Germany, in 1956, and the most recent is Pesaro , Italy, in 1988; the others are Nanterre , Novgorod , and Wilmington, Delaware . The council award an honorary status of Freedom of the Borough to certain individuals "who have in the opinion of
8100-437: The attention of Allied high command. Shortly afterward, while in Madrid, he was arrested wearing women's clothing, in circumstances that remain unclear. He was released and after being questioned by the governor of Gibraltar, allowed to return to Cairo. During Clarke's absence, deception hierarchy in Middle East Command had become muddled. Colonel Ralph Bagnold had taken over deception planning, pushing 'A' Force aside. Clarke
8235-403: The banks of the River Colne . Initially a small market town , the Grand Junction Canal encouraged the construction of paper-making mills, print works, and breweries . While industry has declined in Watford, its location near London and transport links have attracted several companies to site their headquarters in the town. Cassiobury Park is a public park that was once the manor estate of
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#17328594081428370-464: The brigadier ranks are used as in the army, i.e. as junior enlisted ranks ( gradés ), while the French police use brigadier ranks as their sub-officer ( sous-officier ) ranks. Since all professional police and gendarmes have sub-officer status in France, the gendarmerie brigadier ranks are rarely used, since they are used only by auxiliaries. On the other hand, the police brigadier ranks, which are used to indicate professional ranks, are common. In
8505-399: The council, rendered eminent services to the borough"; as of 2020 there are three freemen: Elton John , and two local councillors involved in the twinning process. The ancient parish of Watford was included in the hundred of Cashio . In 1835, Watford became the centre of a poor law union , and a workhouse was built in 1836–1837 at 60 Vicarage Road (then called Hagden Lane). In 1850
8640-411: The cramped and unsanitary houses in the yards and alley-ways opening off the High Street. Some of these people were among those who rioted in 1902 when the celebration for King Edward VII 's coronation was postponed. The council had a programme of slum clearance which stopped with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Building council houses resumed after the war and in the 1920s the Harebreaks estate
8775-512: The development of the town and it was bought up by commercial interests. Various factories and other works sprung up in Watford, mostly breweries and prints, but also engineering works, a steam laundry, a cold storage company and a cocoa processing plant. The town expanded rapidly, most of the new inhabitants moving in from London. At the start of the 20th century the town was growing fast. New roads were laid out in Callowland, North Watford, and in West Watford on farmland. Many continued to live in
8910-451: The district and paved the way for industrial development. The Watford Gas and Coke Company was formed in 1834 and gas works built. The canal allowed paper-making mills to be sited at Croxley. The John Dickinson and Co. mill beside the canal manufactured the Croxley brand of fine quality paper. There had been brewing in Watford from the 17th century and, by the 19th century, two industrial scale brewers Benskins and Sedgwicks were located in
9045-434: The early 8 Commando , envisioned a new special forces unit consisting of small commando teams intended to operate behind enemy lines. Clarke gave the project his full backing, and the unit was named "L" Detachment, Special Air Service – in part to help solidify the existence of the larger fictional force in the minds of the enemy. Stirling's force later evolved into the modern-day Special Air Service . Clarke therefore had
9180-575: The end of 1936, more troops were dispatched to Palestine. Lieutenant-General John Dill was placed in command, and Clarke became his chief of staff . In 1937, Dill was replaced by Major-General Archibald Wavell , the commander who would later give Clarke free rein in Middle Eastern deception operations. In the preface to Clarke's 1948 book, Seven Assignments , Wavell wrote about their time together in Palestine: When I commanded in Palestine in 1937–38, I had on my staff two officers in whom I recognised an original, unorthodox outlook on soldiering ... One
9315-417: The engagement, although he escaped harm and returned to Gibraltar. Rather than attempting another trip to London, Clarke was interviewed by the Governor of Gibraltar, Lord Gort , who judged Clarke's answers acceptable and concluded that "we can reasonably expect that this escapade and its consequences will have given him sufficient shock to make him more prudent in the immediate future". It is unclear why Clarke
9450-430: The establishment of the Air Force as an independent armed force. In the UK, brigadier and sub-brigadier were formerly subaltern ranks in the Royal Horse Guards . Brigadier also exists as a non-commissioned rank. This usage derives from the use of "brigade" to denote a squad or team, similar to the occasional English civilian usage "work brigade". In France , and some countries whose forces were structured based on
9585-493: The fact I was anxious to get the full co-operation of a very ingenious individual called Dudley Clark[e], who was responsible for running a deception operation in Cairo ... Clark[e] was quite an influential chap and promised to give me all the help he could if I would use the name of his bogus brigade of parachutists, which is the Special Air Service, the SAS David Stirling , 1985 Clarke's airborne SAS had another legacy. In May 1941 David Stirling , an injured member of
9720-486: The following centuries. Cassiobury became the family seat of the Earls of Essex , and The Grove the seat of the Earls of Clarendon . In 1762, Sparrows Herne Turnpike Road was established across the Chilterns. The toll road approximately followed the route of the original A41 road . The location of a toll house can be seen at the bottom of Chalk Hill on the Watford side of Bushey Arches; set in an old flint stone wall
9855-640: The form of highly experienced staff. To help with visual deception he brought in Victor Jones and Jasper Maskelyne . He also recruited a Scots Guards officer, Captain Ogilvie-Grant, to manage the MI9 escape and evasion work, which had been adopted as cover for the whole of 'A' Force. Finally, the services of Major E. Titterington, originally a member of Maunsell's SIME, were obtained for help in creating forged documents; eventually Titterington's operation expanded to form
9990-509: The formations as real. From 1942 to 1945, Clarke continued to organise deception in North Africa and southern Europe. After the war, he was asked to record the history of 'A' Force. He retired in 1947 and lived the rest of his life in relative obscurity. As well as pursuing a literary career that produced two histories and a thriller , he worked for the Conservative Party and was a director of Securicor . He died in London in 1974. Clarke
10125-561: The freehold the site, and feels that as the shopping centre is very popular (it was one of top 20 places to shop in the UK in 2019), it will remain open and viable. The town contains the head offices of a number of national companies such as J D Wetherspoon , Camelot Group , Bathstore , and Caversham Finance (BrightHouse). Watford is also the UK base of various multi-nationals including Hilton Worldwide , TotalEnergies , TK Maxx , Costco , JJ Kavanagh and Sons , Vinci , Beko and TeleAdapt . Both
10260-468: The frontier force Rogers' Rangers in the film Northwest Passage , for Donovan's unit. In May of the following year the United States Army Rangers were founded. In February, Clarke suffered from an attack of jaundice that put him out of action for about six weeks. He was visited regularly by Maunsell who was, by that time, a firm friend. At first Clarke worked alone and in secret, under
10395-463: The ground forces intended for the Normandy invasion. To confuse the Germans, Clarke located a look-alike , pre-war actor Lieutenant M. E. Clifton James , and brought him to the Mediterranean under much ceremony. Through 1944 'A' Force was slowly winding down. Clarke was involved in planning Operation Bodyguard , a major cover plan for the Allied landing in Normandy, and he was tasked with executing
10530-536: The ground that British forces would have to invade when entering the country. He arrived in Cairo on 21 May . Despite Clarke and Wavell's successes in deception, the North African campaign was turning against the Allies. Germany had reinforced their Italian allies and in 1941 Erwin Rommel had taken command of Axis forces and won early victories. Churchill replaced Wavell with Claude Auchinleck . Clarke's new commander
10665-792: The highest field rank or most junior general appointment, nominally commanding a brigade . It ranks above colonel and below major general . The rank is used by the British Army , the Royal Marines , the Australian Army , the Bangladesh Army , the Indian Army , the Sri Lankan Army , the New Zealand Army , the Pakistan Army and several others. Although it is not always considered
10800-491: The idea to him, and the prime minister approved the plan on the following day. Clarke, under Brigadier Otto Lunde, was tasked with setting up a new department, MO9, and began to recruit soldiers for what would later become the British Commandos . The first raid into France, Operation Collar , took place on 24 June 1940. Clarke obtained permission to accompany the 120-strong force, but was not allowed to go ashore. The attempt
10935-406: The junction of Rickmansworth Road and Hempstead Road, and the building officially opened on 5 January 1940. Upton House was subsequently demolished in 1961 and Gade House built on the site. Under the Local Government Act 1972 Watford kept the same boundaries, but changed from being a municipal borough to a non-metropolitan district with borough status . Watford is a major regional centre in
11070-526: The key to deception was not to make your enemy think what you wish but to get them to do what you want. Clarke had not forgotten his previous pet scheme: the Commandos. In January 1941 , he met the American Colonel William J. Donovan while the latter was touring the region. Clarke's description of the 1940 British unit inspired Donovan to emulate the idea. Clarke suggested the name "Rangers", after
11205-417: The late 20th century. Hertfordshire County Council designates Watford to be a major sub-regional centre. Several head offices are based in Watford. International conferences and sporting events have also taken place in Watford, including the 2006 World Golf Championship , the 2013 Bilderberg Conference and the 2019 NATO summit which all took place at The Grove . Watford became an urban district under
11340-503: The local British force and was tasked with feeding misinformation to Turkish nationalists – a first taste of the activities that would define his later military career. In 1925, during another period of leave, Clarke covered the Rif War for the Morning Post . Over the inter-war period, Clarke became involved in the theatre and drama establishments of his postings. In 1923, he re-formed
11475-493: The loose ends of various operations and to begin his history of the department. In April 1945, Clarke left Cairo for London; on 18 June he called a meeting of the remaining 'A' Force members at the Great Central Hotel where the department was disbanded. Clarke was mentioned in despatches on 19 October 1944, relating to his work setting up 'A' Force. The planning and implementation of deception measures which have played
11610-603: The manufacture of the aircraft engines and later became Leavesden Aerodrome, to the north of Watford. No longer operational, it was converted into Leavesden Film Studios , now famously the home of the Harry Potter films . Watford developed on the River Colne in southern Hertfordshire, England, 16 miles (26 km) northwest of central London . Ethnicity is 61.9% white British, 2.3% Irish, 0.1% Gypsy or Irish traveller, 7.7% other white, 17.9% Asian/Asian British, 5.8% black or black British. The borough had 102,246 inhabitants at
11745-525: The marshy edges of the River Colne. The name Watford may have arisen from the Old English for "waet" (full of water – the area was marshy), or "wath" (hunting), and ford . St Albans Abbey claimed rights to the manor of Casio (then called "Albanestou"), which included Watford, dating from a grant by King Offa in AD 793. The name Watford is first mentioned in an Anglo-Saxon charter of 1007, where "Watforda"
11880-455: The method used in France, some branches of the army and the gendarmerie use brigadier for a rank equivalent to caporal ( corporal ), and brigadier-chef for a rank equivalent to caporal-chef . Brigadier is used by arms of the army that are by tradition considered "mounted" arms, such as logistics or cavalry units. A similar usage exists elsewhere. In the French gendarmerie,
12015-513: The most junior general rank, and corresponds to the British rank title of brigadier. Brigadier is traditionally the most senior non-commissioned rank in the Dutch police, for example the National Police Corps ( Korps Nationale Politie ). Its predecessors also used this rank. The Royal Marechaussee (military police/gendarmerie) does not use this rank. In Spain , a brigada has
12150-501: The much-expanded 'A' Force, and his theory of deception, to have matured beyond the basic trial and error of the previous years. In March 1942 Clarke had begun to draft ideas for an ambitious order-of-battle deception. He had found that the process of convincing the enemy of the existence of a notional force was long and tedious. Operation Cascade was intended to create the fiction of a much increased Allied force in North Africa, including eight divisions , three new brigades , and even
12285-399: The next five years. On his arrival in Cairo, Clarke began to build a network of useful contacts. He befriended Lieutenant-Colonel Raymund Maunsell, who operated Security Intelligence Middle East (SIME), the agency in charge of counter-espionage in the region. Maunsell later worked closely with Clarke, helping to feed misinformation to the enemy via double agents . Clarke's first deception was
12420-539: The northern home counties . Hertfordshire County Council designates Watford and Stevenage to be its major sub-regional centres, heading its list of preferred sites for retail development. The High Street is the main focus of activity at night having a high concentration of the town's bars, clubs and restaurants. The primary shopping area is the Harlequin Shopping Centre , a large purpose-built indoor mall with over 140 shops, restaurants and cafes built during
12555-594: The official title "Intelligence Officer (special duties) to the Commander-in-Chief". He had neither staff nor official mandate, and worked from a "converted bathroom" at the British Army headquarters, Cairo. His cover role was to establish a regional department for MI9 , the less secret organisation tasked with helping Allied servicemen in escape and evasion tactics. Far from being a token cover, Clarke ran MI9's Middle East department, in tandem with his deception work, until August 1944 . Clarke's one-man show in deception
12690-460: The park won a Green Flag Award , which recognises the best green spaces in the country. There is a children's play area, which includes a paddling pool, play equipment, a bouncy castle, an ice cream van, a kiosk where one may buy food, and 10.25" gauge miniature railway. The Grand Union Canal passes through the park. Cassiobury Park is host to the weekly 5k community event parkrun . Awarded Green Flag status since 2009, Cheslyn has been open to
12825-403: The public since 1965 as a formal gardens and house. The 3.5 acre gardens comprise a formal open area to the front and a semi-natural woodland area to the rear. Henry and Daisy Colbeck originally owned the house and gardens. Mr Colbeck was a renowned local architect, and designed Cheslyn House; he and his wife created the original gardens. The Colbecks travelled extensively, and this is reflected in
12960-427: The railway company was forced to build an expensive tunnel under Leavesden to the north of the town. Watford's original railway station opened in 1837 on the west side of St Albans Road, a small, single-storey red-brick building. It closed in 1858 when it was replaced by a new, larger station at Watford Junction approximately 200 metres (220 yd) further south-east. The old station house still stands today; it
13095-491: The range of unusual and exotic plants in the gardens. Since the space has been open to the public it has been further developed, with new features added such as the pond, rock garden, large herbaceous borders and aviary. Awarded Green Flag status since 2011, Woodside Playing Fields cover approximately 59 acres of playing fields, sports facilities and woodland. The site comprises a range of sports facilities including an eight lane synthetic track and stadium, an indoor bowls green,
13230-565: The rank of lieutenant , Clarke transferred back to the Royal Artillery on his return to England. After the war, Clarke had a varied military career that began with a posting to Mesopotamia in 1919. During the Iraqi revolt of 1920 , he helped evacuate Europeans from the region by boat. While on extended leave in Turkey in 1922, he became involved in the Chanak Crisis , a threatened Turkish attack on British and French troops. Clarke volunteered to help
13365-592: The rank of "Chef de brigade" created during the French Revolution replaced that of Colonel. A brigade commander then commanded... a half-brigade (a name that replaced the regiment). The rank of Brigadier of the Armies reappeared during the Third Republic. It designates a colonel, experienced as a regimental commander, who has under his command several regiments without having the annexed units that would make this group
13500-426: The rank was dissolved in 1922, brigadier-generals wore a crossed sword and baton symbol on its own. From 1922 to 1928, the British rank title used was that of colonel-commandant, with one crown and three 'pips', a rank which, although reflecting its modern role in the British Army as a senior colonel rather than a junior general, was not well received and was replaced with brigadier after six years. Colonel-commandant
13635-399: The region acting as overseer of the department's operations. On 14 October he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), the citation (marked "not for publication") praised Clarke's ongoing work, referring to him as "irreplaceable". In December 1943, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier. Although the promotion did not include perks associated with higher ranks (such as
13770-504: The regular police units of Indonesia but is above the enlisted ranks ( Tamtama ) of the special police units such as in the Mobile Brigade corps and water police units. This rank is below the "Sub-inspector" ( Ajun Inspektur Polisi ) ranks. The police Brigadier ranks are as shown below: In addition, Police Brigadier General ( Brigadir Jenderal Polisi ) and Brigadier General ( Brigadir Jenderal ) are general officer ranks in
13905-511: The same reasons the road had followed centuries before, seeking an easy gradient over the Chiltern Hills. The land-owning interests permitted the canal to follow closely by the river Gade, but the prospect of smoke-emitting steam trains drove them to ensure the railway gave a wide berth to the Cassiobury and Grove estates. Consequently, although the road and canal follow the easier valley route,
14040-514: The surprise of German forces there. On 14 October Clarke, along with Bevan and Flemming, met Churchill to discuss all the Allied deception strategies. 1943 would be the peak of deception operations for Clarke and 'A' Force – in 1944 the focus switched to the Western Front. Until then he was very busy between Operation Barclay and the continuing Cascade. The main Allied push that year was toward Sicily , as decided by high command in January. Barclay
14175-622: The theatres of war worked together. John Bevan of the London Controlling Section hosted an October conference for Clarke, Peter Fleming from India, and representatives from Washington. The meeting agreed on plans for a disinformation campaign, which would attempt to convince German high command that the Allied targets in Africa were Dakar and Sicily (the far eastern and western limits of the theatre). Four days after Montgomery's success at El Alamein, on 8 November , Allied forces landed in Morocco and Algeria to
14310-657: The time of the 2021 census. The borough is separated from Greater London to the south by the urbanised parish of Watford Rural in the Three Rivers District . The Watford subdivision of the Greater London Urban Area , which includes much of the neighbouring districts, had a total population of 120,960 in the 2001 census. Religion in Watford(2021 census) As of the 2021 census, Watford's religious profile roughly reflected that of England and Wales, with
14445-545: The town. The parish church of St Mary's was extensively restored in 1871. The town expanded slightly during this time. In 1851 a new street off the High Street was opened, King Street, followed by Queens Road and Clarendon Road in the early 1860s. During this time, Watford had a population of around 6,500 The railways also continued to expand from Watford during this period; the Watford and Rickmansworth Railway opened in 1862 as
14580-636: The two. The name has survived as a cadet rank at the Spanish Naval Academy . Many countries in South and Central America were formerly Spanish or Portuguese (Brazil) possessions. Brigadier [-general] is used in Latin America , in the normal sense of brigade commander rank (e.g. Colombia , Chile ), although most Latin American nations instead use the rank of brigade general. In Mexico , brigadier general
14715-514: The vale of St Albans to the east and into the Chiltern Hills along the valley of the River Chess to the west. The town grew modestly, assisted by travellers passing through to Berkhamsted Castle and the royal palace at Kings Langley . A big house was built at Cassiobury in the 16th century. This was partly rebuilt in the 17th century and another substantial house was built nearby at The Grove . The houses were expanded and developed throughout
14850-568: The waterworks on Local Board Road. In 1891 the board purchased Upton House at 14 High Street for £2,650, converting it to become their offices and meeting place, holding its first meeting in the building on 1 October 1891. Under the Local Government Act 1894 , the Watford Local Board was reconstituted as Watford Urban District Council with effect from 31 December 1894. The act also stipulated that parishes could not be partly in an urban district and partly outside it. The old parish of Watford
14985-521: Was Orde Wingate , the second was Dudley Clarke. At the outbreak of the Second World War, Clarke was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and began working on intelligence tasks. He worked with Wavell in the Middle East to research possible Allied supply lines, undertook two trips to Norway (in an effort to maintain its neutrality), and conducted secret missions in Calais and Ireland. In May 1940 Clarke became
15120-846: Was also instrumental in the founding of three famous military units, namely the British Commandos , the Special Air Service and the US Rangers . Born in Johannesburg and brought up near London, Clarke joined the Royal Artillery as an officer in 1916 but transferred to the Royal Flying Corps after finding he was too young to fight in France. He spent the First World War learning to fly, first in Reading and then Egypt. Clarke returned to
15255-401: Was an appointment conferred on naval captains) rather than a substantive rank. In Commonwealth countries, and most Arabic -speaking countries (in which the rank is called amid ), the rank insignia comprises a crown (or some other national symbol) with three stars, (sometimes called "pips"), which are often arranged in a triangle. A brigadier's uniform may also have red gorget patches . It
15390-557: Was annoyed at what he saw as a power grab and at the sudden high profile of deception operations (Bagnold's promotion was widely publicised). Over the next few months Bagnold secured more and more of the day-to-day management of deception operations leaving 'A' Force, and Clarke, in a training and advisory capacity. Despite this, Clarke's services were in high demand as the opening months of 1942 saw Allied forces in North Africa suffering serious defeats. On 2 February Auchinleck dispatched Clarke to Libya with urgent orders to assist in halting
15525-568: Was born in Johannesburg on 27 April 1899 . His father, Ernest Clarke, grew up in Kingston upon Hull and moved to South Africa in the late 19th century, where he became embroiled in the Jameson Raid . Ernest managed to avoid prison for his part in the raid and, via a co-conspirator, obtained a job at a gold mining company. Once settled, Ernest married Madeline Gardiner, and a short while later, Dudley
15660-563: Was born. During the Second Boer War , the Clarke family was trapped in the siege of Ladysmith . Although an infant at the time of the siege, Clarke later tried to claim a campaign medal . Soon afterwards, the family returned to England, moving to Watford , where Clarke's brother, the screenwriter T. E. B. Clarke , was born in 1907. From an early age, Clarke wanted a career in the armed forces. In 1912, he attended Charterhouse School , where he
15795-642: Was commanding the North African campaign. He believed that deception was a key part of warfare. On 13 December he summoned Clarke to Egypt, telling high command he wished to set up "a special section of Intelligence for Deception". While awaiting Clarke's arrival, Wavell initiated a successful deception against the Italian forces at Sidi Barrani . Clarke reached Cairo on 18 December, to be greeted by Tony Simonds – another old hand from Palestine. Wavell put Clarke in charge, albeit under great secrecy, of broad strategic deception operations in North Africa. He held this position, under subsequent Mediterranean commanders, for
15930-665: Was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery . When his regiment deployed to France, Clarke had to stay behind because, aged 17, he was too young to fight. Frustrated, he applied to join the Royal Flying Corps and transferred to the School of Military Aeronautics in Reading in November 1917 . The following April he was posted to Egypt to complete his flight training, where he stayed until January 1919 . Despite his promotion to
16065-561: Was common in Watford and advances in technology meant much of the industry became obsolete. Odhams Press closed down in 1978 and The Sun moved out of Watford during the 1980s after market reforms allowed it to do so. In 1925, the Metropolitan Railway Company built a branch to Watford, opening a station close to Cassiobury Park . In the 1950s and 1960s, Watford was the home of the British designer furniture manufacturer Hille . At their premises on St Albans Road, designed by
16200-425: Was described by Pevsner as "the chief glory of Watford Church". The Roman Catholic Church, Holy Rood, is a much later structure. Built in 1890 by John Francis Bentley , the architect responsible for Westminster Cathedral in London, it is noted as a particularity fine example of Gothic Revival architecture . The ornate interior contains stained glass by the designer Nathaniel Westlake . Bushey Arches Viaduct
16335-444: Was developed. By the 1920s, printing had become the biggest industry in Watford. The biggest printers in the town were Sun Printers Ltd and Odhams Press . Watford was the biggest printing centre in the world and many advances in printing were made in Watford. During World War II the prints were taken over by the government who used them to print propaganda. After the war, the printing industry began going into decline. Union activity
16470-468: Was exposed to the glamorous parties and smart uniforms of the nearby military presence at Aldershot , including the newly formed Royal Flying Corps . I've always been a little proud of the fact that, when Britain went to war with Germany on 4th August 1914, I was already in uniform and under arms ... I was only fifteen and a half and no more than a private in the Charterhouse Contingent of
16605-407: Was impressed with Wavell's setup, so 'A' Force and the rest of Middle Eastern Command continued to operate as before. Clarke travelled to Lisbon on 22 August 1941 aiming, as with his earlier Turkey trip, to open up lines of deception into Axis forces. He spent around a month in the area, posing as a flamboyant journalist, before being summoned back to London. His successful deception activities in
16740-423: Was not a major success, with only one of the four units managing to kill enemy troops. While waiting on the beach for his men to return, Clarke's boat was apparently spotted by a German patrol. Somehow Clarke was injured in the ear during, he said, an exchange of fire. Ernest Chappell, who was also on the beach, said that the patrol had not opened fire. In Cairo, Archibald Wavell, Clarke's old commander in Palestine,
16875-409: Was not to last long. In January 1941 Clarke began Operation Abeam, fabricating the existence of a British paratrooper regiment in the region. It would be two years before such troops reached the Mediterranean, but Clarke hoped to play on Italian fears of an airborne assault. He created a fictional 1st Special Air Service Brigade , using faked documents, photographs and reports, which leaked back to
17010-540: Was now well established. Instead he flew to London and Washington in October to discuss strategic deception for Operation Torch , the forthcoming British-American invasion of the French North African colonies, leaving Charles Richardson (a planning officer at Eight Army HQ) and Geoffrey Barkas (Director of Camouflage, Middle East Command) to implement Operation Bertram. For the first time deception experts from across
17145-430: Was only ever used for officers commanding brigades, depots or training establishments. Officers holding equivalent rank in administrative appointments were known as "colonels on the staff", also replaced by brigadier in 1928. Colonel-commandants and colonels on the staff wore the same rank badge later adopted by brigadiers. Until shortly after World War II , brigadier was an appointment conferred on colonels (as commodore
17280-473: Was pleased to find that Auchinleck had restored 'A' Force as the sole deception organisation at HQ. Bagnold's enterprise was entirely sidelined and he moved on to other things. Clarke, who in March was promoted to full colonel, said that Bastion had taught him much: "We learnt more Lessons from it than from almost any other plan and it helped us evolve three important principles." By the end of March, Clarke considered
17415-469: Was released, apparently at the behest of a German contact who believed him to be "an important agent who was ready to assist the Germans", and made his way to Gibraltar . Clarke's run of bad luck continued. He was ordered back to London to explain the Madrid incident to his superiors but the ship he was on, the Ariosto , was torpedoed by a U-boat on 24 October . The Ariosto was one of three ships sunk in
17550-633: Was replaced by Harold Alexander on 8 August , Clarke's third commander in under two years. Bernard Montgomery was handed control of the Eighth Army and instructed to push Rommel back. Montgomery knew Clarke, having taught him infantry tactics at the Staff College in 1931, and instructed him to prepare deception plans for the Second Battle of El Alamein . The plan involved major camouflage activity, Operation Bertram , radio deception, Operation Canwell and
17685-417: Was sent to El Alamein , where Allied forces were on the retreat, to work on deception plans. Upon his return, Bagnold was sidelined and 'A' Force reinstated as the primary deception department. Throughout 1942 Clarke implemented Operation Cascade , an order of battle deception which added many fictional units to the Allied formations. Cascade was a success; by the end of the war the enemy had accepted most of
17820-615: Was the elaborate deception with which Clarke was tasked, an operation to mislead the Axis into expecting attacks on the far eastern and western extremities of the northern Mediterranean theatre – namely the Balkan Peninsula and southern France. On 15 March Clarke again met Bevan, in Algiers , to discuss strategy for Barclay. Building on Cascade he added the Twelfth Army to his fictional order of battle, and began to make them look like
17955-482: Was the first female directly elected mayor in England and the Liberal Democrats ' first directly elected mayor. Since 1999 Watford has been divided into 12 wards . Each ward has three councillors who are elected for a four-year term. Watford elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election, for the Watford constituency . Prior to the establishment of this constituency in 1885
18090-657: Was therefore split, with the part of the parish outside the urban district becoming the parish of Watford Rural with effect from the first parish meeting on 4 December 1894. At the same time, the parish of Bushey was split, with the part within the Watford Urban District becoming a parish called Bushey Urban, which was later renamed Oxhey in 1906. Watford Urban and Bushey Urban / Oxhey were both classed as urban parishes and so did not have parish councils of their own, but were directly administered by Watford Urban District Council. The two urban parishes merged in 1935 to form
18225-735: Was wearing a dress, but reports of the incident indicated he had been following a lead and gone a little too far in his spy-craft. Photographs of his disguise, obtained from the Spanish police, circulated in London and were viewed mostly with amusement. He was allowed to return to Cairo and reached Egypt on 18 November . Although he escaped disciplinary action over the incident, it was the last time Clarke attempted his own espionage work. Back in Cairo, Clarke discovered that much had changed during his absence. The recently promoted Colonel Ralph Bagnold had been appointed "Chief Deception Officer" at Middle Eastern HQ and had taken charge of tactical deception. Clarke
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