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51-634: The Minor Council was established likely sometime between 1172 and 1178, shortly after the Great Council . Both councils had their antecedents in a 'council of wise men' ( consilium sapientes ) that the Venetian patriciate had placed next to the Doge to advise him and curtail his independent authority, and is attested at least since 1143. Indeed, the first known ducal councillors ( consiglieri ducali ) were elected along with Doge Pietro Barbolano in 1032, to prevent

102-566: A 'Council of Wise Men' ( Consilium Sapientium ) that is attested in 1141. That was a council established to limit and control the power of the Doge of Venice , and dominated by the Venetian nobility . The Great Council superseded the general assembly of the people (the Concio or Arengo , which was convened only to ratify laws and elect a new Doge. Its role was to elect all magistracies, approve laws, as well as exercise judicial functions including

153-613: A minimum threshold of 12 votes in the Council of Forty, effectively guaranteeing that all of them would be accepted. In addition, limits on the size of the Great Council were removed, and a law allowed for additional candidates for membership to be submitted by three sitting members, confirmed by the Doge and the Minor Council, and approved by the Council of Forty. Several old-established Venetian commoner families became permanent members of

204-501: A new class, the 'citizens' ( cittadini ) was instituted as a middle class between the closed nobility and the broad mass of the common people (the popolo ). Traditional historiography has lamented the Serrata as "the death of the Venetian republican system and the birth of a closed oligarchy", but in actual fact, the effects of these reforms were broadly beneficial, and spared Venice

255-521: A position only upon joint approval on behalf of the Doge, the Minor Council , and the Council of Forty ( Quarantia ). After this bill was rejected, another bill was proposed, which required new entrants to be subject to approval on behalf of outgoing Councilmen. However, even this proposal was rejected. On 25 November 1289, Pietro Gradenigo , who was the leader of the aristocratic party, was elected Doge of

306-445: A recurrence of the monarchical tendencies of his predecessors. The members of the Minor Council were elected by the Great Council, and the chosen members were prohibited from refusing the election on heavy penalties. The number of ducal councillors was raised to six, one for each district of the city . Their terms of office lasted for one year, followed by another year (later raised to 16 months) where they were prohibited from occupying

357-522: A yearly basis, with the general election usually falling on the day of Saint Michael (29 September). Later, in 1207 the election system was changed; the Concio was required to elect three representatives (up to seven since 1230), who had the duty to nominate the Councillors. Over the years, the Great Council became the bone of contention between the people's party, which aimed to preserve the status quo , and

408-688: The Council of Ten , whose purpose was that of dealing with crimes against the constitution of the State. In 1315, the process of compiling lists of candidates was formalized thanks to the creation of the Golden Book ( Libro d'Oro ): namely, a demographic registry that included the names of all the eligible candidates aged 18 or above. The creation of the Golden Book was followed by the enactment of even stricter rules against up-starters ( homini novi ). The final lockout occurred in 1319. The election of new candidates

459-423: The Minor Council , and by the Great Council itself. This proposal failed to pass, as did another, which proposed the election of new members be approved by a majority of the sitting Great Council. Matters came to a head in 1289, when Doge Giovanni Dandolo died, and a mob formed itself into an ad hoc assembly, or arengo , as had been convened in earlier times, demanding the election of admiral Giacomo Tiepolo

510-557: The Napoleonic invasion - to accept the abdication of the last Doge Ludovico Manin and dissolve the aristocratic assembly: despite lacking the required quorum of 600 members, the board voted overwhelmingly (512 votes in favor, 30 against, 5 abstentions) the end of the Venetian Republic and the transfer of powers to an indefinite provisional government. The first volume of Annali Veneti e del Mondo written by Stefano Magno describes

561-604: The Senate . Over the 15th and 16th centuries, the Senate also became the de facto legislative body, with, the Great Council reduced to discussing or approving measures already decided upon in the Senate, but it retained its judicial power and the authority to elect officials. The rules of admission to the Great Council were further elaborated over time. Men born to women of lower status were banned, as were, from 1498 on, nobles who followed an ecclesiastical career. The process culminated in

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612-504: The 13th century, this gave rise to a political struggle between reformers, who wanted to open membership to the Great Council, and thus to the political elite, up to newcomers, and conservatives, who wished to preserve the patriciate's dominance. While the names of noble families predominate during the 13th century, commoners were still included in the rolls. But even among the nobility there were dissensions. A rising population and wealth meant that more and more citizens sought admission to

663-533: The Council continued to increase in size in the early 14th century, and other magistracies were added to the government, it was decided that a new wing of the Doge's Palace be built alongside the Molo in order to house them. Due to the arrival of the Black Death , the membership of the Council declined, but building of the new hall continued, with decoration starting in 1365. It was not until c.  1420 , however, that

714-437: The Council in this way, along with about a dozen families fleeing the fall of Acre in 1291. In this way, the Great Council was more than doubled in size to over 1100 members by 1300, or about 1 percent of the total Venetian population at the time. This widening of the ruling class appears to have broadly satisfied ambitious men and calmed matters, although at least one commoner who thought that he should have been admitted to

765-516: The Council, a certain Marin Bocconio , was hanged in 1300 for plotting to kill Gradenigo. It is notable that the reform passed during a nearly disastrous conflict with Venice's main rival, the Republic of Genoa , and that the common people made no serious move to oppose it. Over the following years, the entry of new members was limited by additional laws that raised the necessary number of votes in

816-491: The Council, members were required to either have been Councilors at least once in the past four years, or to be patrilinealy related to a former Councilor. In order to better time the entrance of new members, 40 young men would be selected each year by means of a lottery, and their names inscribed in the list of candidates. The 1297 Provision empowered the Council of the Forty, granting it the following rights and duties with regards to

867-407: The Forty to a majority, 25, and finally 30. In 1319, membership became automatic at the 25th year of age—except for thirty who were chosen by lot on the day of St. Barbara, and were allowed to become members already at 20. In 1323, membership was restricted only to men with ancestors who had held high office, effectively making it hereditary. Regardless of their previous patrician or common origins,

918-481: The Great Council was open to new families. By means of lavish gifts to the state, this was the case at the time of the War of Chioggia and the War of Candia , when, to support the enormous cost of the wars, new wealthy families were admitted. Another peculiarity was the creation over time of a division within the nobility itself, that is, families who were able in time to keep intact or to increase their economic capacity, and

969-607: The Great Council, but the traditional patrician families of the Rialto resisted the addition of these nouveau riche to the Council. Likewise complicated was the issue of foreigners, nobles from Venice's nascent colonial empire in the East or from Dalmatia , or Venetian expatriate families returning to the metropolis after decades of absence, due to the fall of the Crusader states in the Levant in

1020-511: The Great Council. Its three heads (the capi ), along with the six ducal councillors , and the Doge, constituted the Signoria of Venice . In its early days, the Great Council was a relatively open and democratic institution, its membership being in theory open to the entire body of free citizens. Members were nominated by three electors, though it is unclear how these were chosen; they were selected partly by lot and partly by rotation. In 1230,

1071-476: The Minor Council did not require the Doge's presence to act. In the absence of a Doge, or during an interregnum, the Minor Council handled all government, and one of the ducal councillors—not always the eldest—became the Vice Doge. The Minor Council also initiated the election of a new Doge, and was empowered to introduce any changes to the process that they sought fit. The Vice Doge was then responsible for crowning

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1122-514: The Minor Council was bound to obey it. Indeed, the oath of office of the ducal councillors explicitly obliged them to enforce this on the Doge, and to oppose him should he try to override or ignore a decision of the lower councils. As part of the Signoria, the Minor Council shared in the supervision of the courts, and adjudicated jurisdiction in disputes between junior magistracies. The Doge's oath of office obliged him and his ducal councillors to visit

1173-531: The Republic. After 6 years he submitted a new lockout provision drawing on drafts of the previous ones. On 6 March 1296 the proposal was rejected by a narrow majority. Finally, after new yearly elections (29 September 1296), the Council approved the bill on 28 February 1297 (that is, the last month of 1296, according to the Venetian Calendar ). The approved provision ruled that, in order to be eligible to be part of

1224-480: The admission of upstart candidates by the Council of Forty (requiring 20 votes instead of the former 12 needed for election). A second wave of limitations occurred in 1307. This led to another attempted coup (1310), on behalf of a faction led by Bajamonte Tiepolo . The conspiracy was averted by the Doge Pietro Gradenigo. As a reaction to the conspiracy, the government instituted a new special court—that is,

1275-480: The aristocratic party, which aimed to exclude up-starts from the government. On 5 October 1286, during the government of Doge Giovanni Dandolo , the aristocratic party presented a bill to reform the eligibility criteria for the Great Council, with the purpose of limiting its members to those who had already joined the Council or those whose paternal relatives held the position of Councilman. The proposal also required that candidates without family credentials could run for

1326-478: The bitter factional rivalries that consumed the other Italian cities. Unlike the volatile general assembly of the people, the Great Council members were guaranteed a share in power and thus less easy to manipulate. The relatively large number of families participating in this oligarchic elite was also a peculiar feature of the Venetian state, making it both more representative, and ensuring that any rivalry between two families could be kept in check, and did not affect

1377-424: The courts in person and hear any complaints brought to them there. Until 1446, the Minor Council also had the responsibility of interpreting the law. In addition, the ducal councillors were responsible for supervising the administration of Venice itself, and the elections of its officials. In financial matters, the Minor Council originally had the right to dispose of public funds of up to 10 pounds of gold, but this

1428-575: The election of the Great Council: The Provision also made explicit the conditions for its annulment: The Act was ratified in September 1298, and again in 1299. Its approval caused unrest among the people's party, which eventually led to Marin Bocconio 's 1300 attempted coup. The failure of his conspiracy triggered the approval of a new provision (22 March 1300), which raised the threshold for

1479-411: The electoral process was altered for unknown reasons, with seven electors serving between 29 September and 29 March, and three during the other six months. However, it appears that the number of electors fluctuated, and could be as small as four. These electors chose one hundred members to be nominated for election to the next year's Great Council, but since there was no alternate slate of candidates,

1530-517: The establishment, in 1506 and 1526, of records of births and marriages of the nobility. Kept and maintained by the Avogadori de Comùn , this was the famous 'Golden Book' ( Libro d'Oro ) of the Venetian nobility. At this point, the council reached its maximum size of 2746 members. The effect of the provisions of the Serrata had increased dramatically the number of members. In the sixteenth century, it

1581-445: The granting of pardons. However, as the Great Council itself was too large and unwieldy, numbering some 300–400 members already in the 13th century, the actual deliberation and decision-making of government took place in smaller councils, more capable of action. In the 13th century, the most important of these was the Council of Forty , which not only served as the supreme judicial body, but also prepared legislation to be submitted to

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1632-455: The historian Frederic C. Lane puts it, "one can say that the Great Council contained all the most important people who were available in Venice and a sprinkling of others named to it because someone thought they were potentially important". As the Great Council elected people to the various offices of the Venetian government, it "had become the gatekeeper for power and prestige in Venice". During

1683-453: The late 13th century. These men were counted as Venetian citizens, but were culturally foreign to the mother city. There were proposals for reform, notably in October 1286, when the heads of the Council of Forty proposed that only those whose ancestors had been members would automatically have the right to be considered for membership, and that all others would have to be approved by the Doge,

1734-464: The lockout ( Serrata ) of 1297, its membership was established on hereditary right, exclusive to the patrician families enrolled in the Golden Book of the Venetian nobility . The Great Council was unique at the time in its usage of lottery to select nominators for proposal of candidates, who were thereafter voted upon. The exact origins of the Great Council are unclear. Tradition places its establishment in 1172, but it likely has its origin in

1785-415: The names chosen were also elected. The "somewhat haphazard" election process placed enormous power on the hands of the very few electors, who were constrained only by force of custom to not abuse their position. In addition, certain office-holders, such as the ducal councillors or members of the Council of Forty, were members ex officio , and they outnumbered the elected members by a considerable margin. As

1836-547: The new hall of the Great Council started being used by it. The hall was destroyed in the fire of 20 December 1577, in which the Doge's Palace suffered so much damage that for a time it was considered to tear it down and rebuild it to a new design. In the end, it was decided to restore the building, and during this time, until 30 September 1578, the Great Council met in a storage shed in the Arsenal of Venice . In some rare cases, facing severe economic difficulties and dangers, access to

1887-516: The newly elected Doge with the chief symbol of his office, the corno ducale . Together with the Capi dei Quaranta and the Doge, the Minor Council formed the Signoria of Venice , the formal Venetian government, and along with the boards of the savi formed the de facto cabinet, the Full College . The Minor Council co-presided with the Doge over all governing councils of the Republic, and had

1938-496: The nobility as a whole. For the remainder of the Republic's history, the Great Council was the supreme body of the state, replacing the virtually defunct Concio , which was formally abolished in 1423. The Great Council retained its legislative authority, but many of its powers were delegated to other, smaller bodies, more capable of action. Soon, however, most of the chief functions of government, such as nominating military commanders or receiving ambassadors, were taken over by

1989-479: The norm. Following his election, Gradenigo devoted considerable effort into pushing through a commonly acceptable reform. This was achieved on 28 February 1297, an event known as the Serrata ( lit.   ' lock-out ' ). The continued presence of existing members was ensured by stipulating that the present members, or those who had been members during the previous four years, would remain members if they gathered

2040-418: The now permanent and hereditary members of the Great Council henceforth constituted the nobility of Venice. This new ruling class numbered almost 200 families and monopolized the higher levels of power in the Republic. Deserving men who distinguished themselves were still admitted in later years, but this was a very rare occasion. To provide for social mobility for ambitious families of wealth and distinction,

2091-414: The origins of the Venetian noble families and presents the alphabetically arranged list with dates of their admission to Great Council. Serrata del Maggior Consiglio The Great Council Lockout ( Italian : Serrata del Maggior Consiglio ) refers to the constitutional process, started with the 1297 Ordinance, by means of which membership of the Great Council of Venice became hereditary. Since it

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2142-413: The poor ones (the so-called Barnabites ). The latter may have gradually or suddenly lost their wealth, but continued to maintain the hereditary right to sit in the Great Council. This often took the two sides of the nobility to clash in council and opened the possibility to cases of vote buying . It was the Great Council, on 12 May 1797, that declared the end of the Republic of Venice, by deciding - upon

2193-403: The right to initiate laws and proposals to be put before the Great Council. The Minor Council was also notified in advance of any draft proposal initiated by other councils, and had the right to delay its presentation to the Great Council for three days. Furthermore, even individual ducal councillors had the right to convene the Great Council. Once the lower councils had reached a decision, however,

2244-420: The same office. The ducal councillors were ex officio members of the Great Council. Very soon after its establishment, the heads of the Council of Forty ( Capi dei Quaranta ) became associated with the Minor Council, sometimes substituting for missing ducal councillors and holding the right to vote with them in certain matters. This association is documented as established fact by 1231. In 1437, three of

2295-442: The son and grandson of Doges, as the new Doge. The Great Council vacillated and suspended its own election process, but Tiepolo refused the nomination, and the Great Council proceeded with the election of Pietro Gradenigo . This was a critical moment: had the mob prevailed, the trajectory of politics in Venice might have followed that of other Italian city-states, where dynastic rule or populist autocrats backed by mob violence were

2346-502: The war against the League of Cambrai ). When the Commonwealth of Venice was formed, the Doge was assisted by a Council of Wise Men ( Consilium Sapientium ) elected by the people's assembly ( Concio ). Once it obtained sovereign power in 1172, the Council came to be known as Great Council . It originally functioned as an extension of the people's assembly, and its members were elected on

2397-593: The year's outgoing councillors were named as 'inferior' councillors, not formally part of the Minor Council, but tasked with representing it in the Criminal Forty . The main function of the Minor Council was to share in and limit the Doge's power. Indeed, so close was the association of the two, that they are frequently almost conflated in the sources. The Doge was dependent on the assent of at least four ducal councillors for his decisions to have force, and could not open dispatches except in their presence, while conversely

2448-441: Was abolished in 1441. Great Council of Venice The Great Council or Major Council ( Italian : Maggior Consiglio ; Venetian : Mazor Consegio ) was a political organ of the Republic of Venice between 1172 and 1797. It was the chief political assembly, responsible for electing many of the other political offices and the senior councils that ran the Republic, passing laws, and exercising judicial oversight. Following

2499-501: Was common for up to 2095 patricians to have the right to sit in the Ducal Palace. There was an obvious difficulty in managing such a body. The enlargement of the body also led to the need for a larger meeting space. This need was identified already by Pietro Gradenigo, and a hall was enlarged for this purpose in the buildings lining the Molo , the embankment alongside the Doge's Palace . As

2550-489: Was the Great Council that had the right to elect the Doge , the 1297 Ordinance marked a relevant change in the constitution of the Republic . This resulted in the exclusion of minor aristocrats and plebeians from participating in the government of the Republic. Although formerly provisional, the Ordinance later became a permanent Act, and since that time it was disregarded only at times of political or financial crisis (e.g. after

2601-464: Was ultimately abolished and the status of Councillor became automatic for all male patricians aged 25 or above. An exception was made every year for 30 young patricians , randomly chosen on the day of Saint Barbara , who were allowed to join at the age of 20. Since then, the Great Council positions remained hereditary. Eventually, this led to the dismissal of the obsolete people's assembly ( Concio ) in 1423. According to Diego Puga and Daniel Trefler,

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