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197-614: The Dominican Army ( Spanish : Ejército de República Dominicana ), is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic , together with the Navy and the Air Force . The Dominican army with 28,750 active duty personnel consists of six infantry brigades, a combat support brigade, a combat service support brigade and the air cavalry squadron. The island of Hispaniola
394-602: A New Englander who was openly hostile to slavery was much more sympathetic to the Haitian cause than the Washington administration before and Jefferson after, both of whom came from Southern slave-owning planter backgrounds. The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British, but Louverture continually rebuffed suggestions from either power that he should declare independence. As long as France maintained
591-914: A Cavalry Squadron and the Workers' Battalion of the Arsenal; in Bani, the Ocoa Battalion and four separate companies, in Samaná, an Artillery company; in Neyba, 9 separate companies, including one of Artillery; in San Cristobal; in Puerto Plata, a Battalion; In Santiago de los Caballeros the 3rd is created . Regiment and an Artillery Company; in Azua, the "Azuano Battalion"; in San Juan de la Maguana,
788-827: A Spanish-based creole language called Chavacano developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. The local languages of the Philippines also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from Mexican Spanish , owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through New Spain until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898. Toussaint Louverture François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture ( French: [fʁɑ̃swa dɔminik tusɛ̃ luvɛʁtyʁ] , English: / ˌ l uː v ər ˈ tj ʊər / ) also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda (20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803),
985-520: A Staff, making up a total of about 940 troops, whose organization was as follows: On July 10, 1907, Ramón Cáceres reorganized it, changing its name to the Republican Guard. The new organization of the guard was as follows: Ramón Cáceres used the Republican Guard to put an end to the Cibao rebel leaders. Due to its loyalty to the president, it was popularly nicknamed "Guardia de Mon", during this period it
1182-488: A certain number of soldiers. No person belonging to a Class or Troop could hold two positions or receive two salaries. Some of the units were part of the garrison of the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, during the colonial period were: Companies of Morenos Volunteer Infantry of Santo Domingo, entry to the manning companies was prohibited to those Americans who were not of Spanish descent and of white race, except for
1379-588: A considerable number of words from Arabic , as well as a minor influence from the Germanic Gothic language through the period of Visigoth rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from Latin through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both Classical Latin and Renaissance Latin , the form of Latin in use at that time. According to
1576-697: A degree of theological education from the Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries through his church attendance and devout Catholicism. His medical knowledge is attributed to a familiarity with the folk medicine of the African plantation slaves and Creole communities, as well as more formal techniques found in the hospitals founded by the Jesuits and the free people of color. Legal documents signed on Louverture's behalf between 1778 and 1781 suggest that he could not yet write at that time. Throughout his military and political career during
1773-517: A dramatic change in the pronunciation of its sibilant consonants , known in Spanish as the reajuste de las sibilantes , which resulted in the distinctive velar [x] pronunciation of the letter ⟨j⟩ and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic interdental [θ] ("th-sound") for the letter ⟨z⟩ (and for ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ ). See History of Spanish (Modern development of
1970-476: A first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos ( Ilustrados ). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing. Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American administration after
2167-527: A free man of color, after overthrowing French General Étienne Laveaux. In 1796 Villate drummed up popular support by accusing the French authorities of plotting a return to slavery. On 20 March, he succeeded in capturing the French Governor Laveaux, and appointed himself Governor. Louverture's troops soon arrived at Cap-Français to rescue the captured governor and to drive Villatte out of town. Louverture
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#17328513153322364-624: A general emancipation, but an offer of freedom to male slaves who agreed to fight for them) Louverture stated that "the blacks wanted to serve under a king and the Spanish king offered his protection." On 29 August 1793, he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the black population of St. Domingue: Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St. Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for
2561-562: A landing of French troops if necessary. After Rigaud sent troops to seize the border towns of Petit-Goave and Grand-Goave in June 1799, Louverture persuaded Roume to declare Rigaud a traitor and attacked the southern state. The resulting civil war, known as the War of Knives , lasted more than a year, with the defeated Rigaud fleeing to Guadeloupe , then France, in August 1800. Louverture delegated most of
2758-471: A long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century. In the wake of the 1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty , hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States. The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce. According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of
2955-456: A majority in their ranks. A Rural Guard was created in 1905 by Carlos Morales Languasco. This Corps was organized militarily, but its operation was essentially civil, with the main objective being the preservation of public order; protect property and people and assist judicial authorities when required to repress crimes and offenses. The Rural Guard was made up of a regiment made up of 4 Cavalry squadrons and 4 Infantry Companies. It will also have
3152-427: A massacre of the whites of the island. The accusation played on Sonthonax's political radicalism and known hatred of the aristocratic grands blancs , but historians have varied as to how credible they consider it. On reaching France, Sonthonax countered by accusing Louverture of royalist, counter-revolutionary, and pro-independence tendencies. Louverture knew that he had asserted his authority to such an extent that
3349-429: A move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson . On the other hand, Louverture was able to pool his 4,000 men with Laveaux's troops in joint actions. By now his officers included men who were to remain important throughout the revolution: his brother Paul, his nephew Moïse Hyacinthe , Jean-Jacques Dessalines , and Henri Christophe . Before long, Louverture had put an end to
3546-429: A power-seeker and sincere abolitionist" who was working with Laveaux since January 1794 and switched sides on 6 May. Louverture claimed to have switched sides after emancipation was proclaimed and the commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel had returned to France in June 1794. However, a letter from Toussaint to General Laveaux confirms that he was already fighting officially on the behalf of the French by 18 May 1794. In
3743-482: A powerful defensive position. Louverture was determined to proceed anyway and coerced Roume into supplying the necessary permission. At the same time, in order to improve his political relationships with other European powers, Louverture tooks steps to stabilize the political landscape of the Caribbean, which included limiting his anti-slavery sentiments in the interest of realpolitik . When Isaac Yeshurun Sasportas,
3940-498: A primarily Hassaniya Arabic -speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as its secondary official language, and in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf ( Algeria ), where the Spanish language is still taught as
4137-457: A school in mainland France for the children of colonial officials . This was done to provide them with a formal education in the French language and culture, one that Louverture highly desired for his children, but to also use them as political hostages against Louverture should he act against the will of the central French authority in Paris. In spite of this Placide and Isaac ran away enough times from
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#17328513153324334-599: A second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system. While far from its heyday during the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , the Spanish language has some presence in northern Morocco , stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media. According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of
4531-518: A second language, largely by Cuban educators. The number of Spanish speakers is unknown. Spanish is also an official language of the African Union . Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization , it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as
4728-481: A series of mistresses. In 1785, Louverture's eldest child, the 24-year-old Toussaint Jr., died from a fever and the family organized a formal Catholic funeral for him. This was officiated by a local priest as a favor for the devout Louverture. Gabrielle-Toussaint disappeared from the historical record at this time and is presumed to have also died, possibly from the same illness that took Toussaint Jr. Not all of Louverture's children can be identified with certainty, but
4925-491: A sub-adjutant and an order bugler; In addition to an instructor in each battalion and in the artillery brigade. One of the most visionary men in military matters was General Gregorio Luperón , who in the provisional government presided over by him, between 1879 and 1880, ordered the repair of all the military barracks with their fortifications and premises were built to house the governorships and weapons commands of different cities and towns. He bought weapons and supplies to supply
5122-493: A talent for handling the horses and oxen on the plantation. This allowed the siblings to work in the manor house and stables, away from the grueling physical labor and deadly corporal punishment meted out in the sugar-cane fields. In spite of this relative privilege, there is evidence that even in his youth Louverture's pride pushed him to engage in fights with members of the Petits-blancs (white commoner) community, who worked on
5319-509: A young 22-year-old female slave and traded her to the Brédas to prevent Pelage from being sold to a new owner. By the start of the revolution, Louverture began to accumulate a moderate fortune and was able to buy a small plot of land adjacent to the Bréda property to build a house for his family. He was nearly 48 years old at this time. Louverture gained some education from his godfather Pierre-Baptiste on
5516-530: Is Mexico . Spanish is part of the Ibero-Romance language group , in which the language is also known as Castilian ( castellano ). The group evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century, and the first systematic written use of
5713-416: Is cognate to the root word of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of satisfecho ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent
5910-485: Is also granted. Because of this, the militias were reorganized in 1769 and were made up of 15 Companies of Infantry Volunteers (12 of Whites and 3 of Mulattoes) and 6 of Cavalry (Voluntarios de Dragones de Santo Domingo) in 1784. In 1772, the two Border Companies were ordered to be replaced in service by three Infantry Companies belonging to the Fixed Battalion of Santo Domingo. These three Companies would alternate with
6107-413: Is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world. Spanish is well represented in the humanities and social sciences . Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese and the second most used language by number of websites after English. Spanish is used as an official language by many international organizations , including
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6304-449: Is estimated that about 486 million people speak Spanish as a native language , making it the second most spoken language by number of native speakers . An additional 75 million speak Spanish as a second or foreign language , making it the fourth most spoken language in the world overall after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 538 million speakers. Spanish is also
6501-740: Is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of Mercosur in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in Brazil . In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President , making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil. In September 2016 this law
6698-806: Is spoken by very small communities in Angola due to Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence. Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the Canary Islands , located in the Atlantic Ocean some 100 km (62 mi) off
6895-804: Is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico . The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles , Miami , San Antonio , New York , San Francisco , Dallas , Tucson and Phoenix of the Arizona Sun Corridor , as well as more recently, Chicago , Las Vegas , Boston , Denver , Houston , Indianapolis , Philadelphia , Cleveland , Salt Lake City , Atlanta , Nashville , Orlando , Tampa , Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. Although Spanish has no official recognition in
7092-491: Is the official language of 20 countries , as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese ; the world's fourth-most spoken language overall after English , Mandarin Chinese, and Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ); and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers
7289-567: Is usually assumed to be derived from castillo ('castle'). In the Middle Ages , the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as Romance and later also as Lengua vulgar . Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as Romance castellano ( romanz castellano , romanz de Castiella ), lenguaje de Castiella , and ultimately simply as castellano (noun). Different etymologies have been suggested for
7486-486: The American and French governments over the issue of privateering . The two countries entered into the so-called "Quasi"-War , but trade between Saint-Domingue and the United States was desirable to both Louverture and the United States. With Hédouville gone, Louverture sent diplomat Joseph Bunel , a grand blanc former planter married to a Black Haitian wife, to negotiate with the administration of John Adams . Adams as
7683-575: The Catholic Church by the local Jesuit Order . Pierre-Baptiste Simon, a carpenter and gatekeeper on the Bréda plantation, is considered to have been Louverture's godfather and went on to become a parental figure to Louverture's family, along with his foster mother Pelage, after the death of Toussaint's parents. Growing up, Toussaint first learned to speak the African Fon language of the Allada slaves on
7880-533: The French National Assembly to expand voting rights and legal protections from the grands blancs to the wealthy slave-owning gens de couleur, such as themselves. Being of majority white descent and with Ogé having been educated in France, the two were incensed that their black African ancestry prevented them from having the same legal rights as their fathers, who were both grand blanc planters. Rebuffed by
8077-557: The Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005. Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba , Bonaire and Curaçao ( ABC Islands ) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speaking Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency. The local language Papiamentu (Papiamento on Aruba)
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8274-508: The Spanish–American War but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s. Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and Filipino , a standardized version of Tagalog . Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under
8471-464: The Treaty of Basel , Spanish sovereignty being recovered in 1809. Years layer, it was proclaimed independent in 1821, occupied by Haiti in 1822, liberated again in 1844, and incorporated back into Spain in 1861 by decision of its own rulers until it was definitively established as an independent republic in 1865. Due to these political ups and downs and its position and strategic situation, the war history of
8668-798: The United Nations , European Union , Organization of American States , Union of South American Nations , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , African Union , among others. In Spain and some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only español but also castellano (Castilian), the language from the Kingdom of Castile , contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain such as Galician , Basque , Asturian , Catalan/Valencian , Aragonese , Occitan and other minor languages. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses
8865-665: The war of liberation the setting of a great national epic, where Dominican weapons only saw the sun of triumph momentarily clouded in the first actions of the 1849 campaign, which they served to make the Loria shine with renewed brilliance in the monumental Battle of Las Carreras . The Dominican Army also had a logistical structure based on the nation's war priority and extremely elaborate effective military regulations. In addition, it had an effective bureaucracy, basic operational training structures and rigorous military justice. In this organization, there are notable Spanish influences, although in
9062-700: The "San Juan" and the "Compañía de Los Llanos"; in Higüey, a Battalion, in La Vega, an Infantry Regiment, a minor Artillery Brigade and a Cavalry Squadron; Artillery Brigades in Santiago, the Capital and Puerto Plata. The Southern Expeditionary Army also had 5 Battalions with fixed headquarters and other troop units that were rotated between the different Arms Commands and the Southern Army. Distribution of National Army units throughout
9259-528: The 1791 War for Freedom in Saint-Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo , Louverture switched his allegiance to the French when the new Republican government abolished slavery . Louverture gradually established control over the whole island and used his political and military influence to gain dominance over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to balance
9456-404: The 2021–2022 school year alone. The local business process outsourcing industry has also helped boost the language's economic prospects. Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is around 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population, a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely. Aside from standard Spanish,
9653-574: The 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara , and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City . For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language . Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2023, it
9850-765: The Artibonite in the West in addition to capturing the port town of Gonaïves in December 1793. However, tensions had emerged between Louverture and the Spanish higher-ups. His superior with whom he enjoyed good relations, Matías de Armona, was replaced with Juan de Lleonart – who was disliked by the black auxiliaries. Lleonart failed to support Louverture in March 1794 during his feud with Biassou, who had been stealing supplies for Louverture's men and selling their families as slaves. Unlike Jean-François and Bissaou, Louverture refused to round up enslaved women and children to sell to
10047-420: The British presence, but was unable to oust them from Saint-Marc . He contained them by resorting to guerilla tactics . Throughout 1795 and 1796, Louverture was also concerned with re-establishing agriculture and exports, and keeping the peace in areas under his control. In speeches and policy he revealed his belief that the long-term freedom of the people of Saint-Domingue depended on the economic viability of
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#173285131533210244-534: The Bréda plantation. His extant letters demonstrate a moderate familiarity with Epictetus , the Stoic philosopher who had lived as a slave, while his public speeches showed a familiarity with Machiavelli . Some cite Enlightenment thinker Abbé Raynal , a French critic of slavery, and his publication Histoire des deux Indes predicting a slave revolt in the West Indies as a possible influence. Louverture received
10441-756: The Department of War and Navy for the year 1913 was as follows: Spanish language Spanish ( español ) or Castilian ( castellano ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe . Today, it is a global language with about 500 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain , and about 600 million when including second language speakers. Spanish
10638-434: The Dominican Republic is long and complex. In the 18th century, the island was marked on the outside by a rational defense and by a certain calm regarding international conflicts fought on its soil. However, in the interior of the island along the border between the Spanish and French possessions, a North-South line, not at all clear and poorly defined; It constituted an area of continuous friction and problems. Distribution of
10835-483: The Drummers who had to be people of color. Although this rule prevailed for these regular troops, the recruitment in the militias was very different, where the entry of men of races other than the white was allowed, rather obligatory, of course, maintaining the differentiation of the units separately according to the skin color of the men who were to enroll in it, without mixing them among themselves, or at least between white women and those of other racial origins. Therefore,
11032-523: The Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business. Whereas it is not the mother tongue of virtually any of its speakers, the vast majority of the population is proficient in Spanish. The Instituto Cervantes estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish. The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages. Spanish
11229-494: The First Republic, a period that spans from 1844 to 1861, the Dominican Army reached levels of organization and efficiency of considerable notoriety. As an example of this, it would be enough to highlight the achievement and preservation of national independence, with the Dominican victory over repeated Haitian military invasions in the 12-year Dominican War of Independence , which followed the proclamation of independence. Four military campaigns and more than 15 victorious battles gave
11426-429: The French government might well suspect him of seeking independence. At the same time, the French Directoire government was considerably less revolutionary than it had been. Suspicions began to brew that it might reconsider the abolition of slavery. In November 1797, Louverture wrote again to the Directoire, assuring them of his loyalty, but reminding them firmly that abolition must be maintained. For months, Louverture
11623-416: The French militia of the Napoleonic era, with its gold plating and they did not use weapons out of service). When the army increased its personnel, it resorted to the recruitment file. It was practiced by surprise on any given night, especially on Saturdays and Sundays when the neighborhood parties were full of young men. The day after a recruitment, the leadership made a selection of those who were suitable for
11820-485: The Gonaïves attack was thought to be feigned and Lleonart suspected him of treachery. Remaining distrustful of the black commander, Lleonart housed his wife and children whilst Louverture led an attack on Dondon in early May, an act which Lleonart later believed confirmed Louverture's decision to turn against the Spanish. The timing of and motivation behind Louverture's volte-face against Spain remains debated among historians. C. L. R. James claimed that upon learning of
12017-411: The Haitian Revolution. Between 1761 and 1777, Louverture met and married his first wife, Cécile, in a Catholic ceremony . The couple went on to have two sons, Toussaint Jr. and Gabrielle-Toussaint, and a daughter, Marie-Marthe. During this time, Louverture bought several slaves; although this was a means to grow a greater pool of exploitable labor, this was one of the few legal methods available to free
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#173285131533212214-577: The Iberian Peninsula. These languages included Proto-Basque , Iberian , Lusitanian , Celtiberian and Gallaecian . The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era , the most important influences on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring Romance languages — Mozarabic ( Andalusi Romance ), Navarro-Aragonese , Leonese , Catalan/Valencian , Portuguese , Galician , Occitan , and later, French and Italian . Spanish also borrowed
12411-423: The Land Army in the Constitution of 1844, was practically born with the First Dominican Republic , reflected in the military actions carried out by the patriots on February 27, led by the blunderbuss shot of the independence hero Matías Ramón Mella . The members of that first army came from the Haitian units known as the 31st, 32nd and 33rd Regiments, which operated in Santo Domingo, the first two, and in Santiago,
12608-404: The National Army's strength had been reduced to the Ozama Battalion, renamed the Ozama Regiment in 1913, and to a Mountain Artillery Battery. In addition, in 1914, the Republican Guard, which until then functioned as dependent on the Department of the Interior and Police, passed under control of the Ministry of War and Navy, with the name of the Republican Guard Auxiliary Corps. The organization of
12805-424: The Old Spanish sibilants) for details. The Gramática de la lengua castellana , written in Salamanca in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija , was the first grammar written for a modern European language. According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to Queen Isabella I , she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire. In his introduction to
13002-425: The Permanent Army and the National Civic Guard. The infantry was organized into regiments, composed of two battalions and these, in turn, of six companies, with a strength of 63 men; The regiment's staff was made up of 8 men and the battalion's staff was made up of 4 men. The artillery was organized into brigades and half-brigades, composed of four and two companies respectively, with a force of 53 men; The brigade staff
13199-476: The Restoration battalion; in Santiago of the Yaque battalion; in La Vega and Puerto Plata, one battalion of hunters each; and artillery companies in Puerto Plata, Santiago and Samaná. The battalions of Santo Domingo and Santiago had an effective force of 300 men, divided into 6 companies of 50 men each made up of: 1 Captain; 1 Lieutenant; 1 Second Lieutenant; 1 1st Sergeant ; 4 2nd Sergeants; 4 Capes; Bugle of Orders; Drum and 36 Soldiers. The Puerto Plata battalion
13396-443: The Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms— español and castellano —are regarded as synonymous and equally valid. The term castellano is related to Castile ( Castilla or archaically Castiella ), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name Castile , in turn,
13593-448: The Spanish in May 1793; Louverture likely did so in early June. He had made covert overtures to General Laveaux prior but was rebuffed as Louverture's conditions for alliance were deemed unacceptable. At this time the republicans were yet to make any formal offer to the slaves in arms and conditions for the blacks under the Spanish looked better than that of the French. In response to the civil commissioners' radical 20 June proclamation (not
13790-403: The Spanish threat to French Saint-Domingue. In any case, the Treaty of Basel of July 1795 marked a formal end to hostilities between the two countries. Black leaders Jean-François and Biassou continued to fight against Louverture until November, when they left for Spain and Florida, respectively. At that point, most of their men joined Louverture's forces. Louverture also made inroads against
13987-425: The Spanish troops on the island were gradually reduced and it lost importance in colonization, which more easily led to the French occupations of 1801 and 1805. In 1795 Santo Domingo was ceded to France by the Treaty of Basel, but the French Army of Toussaint Louverture did not take possession of the territory until 1801. At the beginning of 1810, the Auxiliary Battalion of Spanish Troops of the Island of Santo Domingo
14184-527: The Spanish, Louverture ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l'Ouest , a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory. He gained a reputation for his discipline, training his men in guerrilla tactics and "the European style of war". Louverture emphasized brotherhood and fraternity among his troops and aimed to unify individuals of many populations. He used republican rhetoric to rally
14381-526: The Spanish. This feud also emphasized Louverture's inferior position in the trio of black generals in the minds of the Spanish ;– a check upon any ambitions for further promotion. On 29 April 1794, the Spanish garrison at Gonaïves was suddenly attacked by black troops fighting in the name of "the King of the French", who demanded that the garrison surrender. Approximately 150 men were killed and much of
14578-448: The State. ... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities... The Royal Spanish Academy ( Real Academia Española ), on the other hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language castellano . The Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (a language guide published by
14775-502: The U.S. population were of Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin. In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population. Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico , where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included. While English
14972-544: The US, who feared that the success of the revolution would inspire slave revolts across the Caribbean, the South American colonies, and the southern United States. On 30 April 1798, Louverture signed a treaty with British Army officer Thomas Maitland , exchanging the withdrawal of British troops from western Saint-Domingue in return for a general amnesty for the French counter-revolutionaries in those areas. In May, Port-au-Prince
15169-505: The Villate insurrection, France's representatives of the third commission arrived in Saint-Domingue. Among them was Sonthonax , the commissioner who had previously declared abolition of slavery on the same day as Louverture's proclamation of Camp Turel. At first the relationship between the two men was positive. Sonthonax promoted Louverture to general and arranged for his sons, Placide and Isaac, who were eleven and fourteen respectively to attend
15366-478: The abolition of slavery . For months, Louverture had been in diplomatic contact with the French general Étienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux. During this time, his competition with the other rebel leaders was growing, and the Spanish had started to look with disfavor on his near-autonomous control of a large and strategically important region. Louverture's auxiliary force was employed to great success, with his army responsible for half of all Spanish gains north of
15563-572: The abolition of slavery, he appeared to be content to have the colony remain French, at least in name. In 1799, the tensions between Louverture and Rigaud came to a head. Louverture accused Rigaud of trying to assassinate him to gain power over Saint-Domingue. Rigaud claimed Louverture was conspiring with the British to restore slavery. The conflict was complicated by racial overtones that escalated tensions between full blacks and mulattoes. Louverture had other political reasons for eliminating Rigaud; only by controlling every port could he hope to prevent
15760-451: The administration of Ferdinand Marcos two months later. It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language. Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that the Government shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of
15957-425: The already defined Dominican military doctrine, but rather it was going to confront two significant parts of Dominican society with the same war doctrine, and incidentally, it is worth highlighting here that When the extremes were met, the Spanish forces could not quell a popular insurrection that devastated the entire island territory with astonishing speed. The Spanish forces that went to the island were organized in
16154-506: The arsenals of the Dominican Republic that were empty after so many years of wars and revolutions. He even ordered the creation of military schools, provided them with books and ordered the purchase of new uniforms, in the European style. On May 15, 1876, during the government of Francisco Ulises Espaillat, Law 523 was promulgated on the organization and service of the National Civic Guard, a force of militiamen and volunteers raised in
16351-518: The assembly they returned to the colony where Ogé met up with Jean-Baptiste Chavannes , a wealthy mixed-race veteran of the American Revolution and an abolitionist. Here the two organized a small scale revolt in 1790 composed of a few hundred gens de couleur, who engaged in several battles against the colonial militias on the island. However, after the movement failed to gain traction Ogé and Chavannes were quickly captured and publicly broken on
16548-412: The basis of a wise organization, a rotation method was established in the registration, which left human forces in the rear for such purposes. By virtue of Decree No. 664, of August 24, 1860, the first military academy was created, with capacity for fifty students and their studies would last two years, distributed over six quarters. However, this initiative was cut short by the political decision to annex
16745-479: The black and mixed-race population made up of slave foremen, Creoles , and freed slaves gathered in secret at a plantation in Morne-Rouge in the north of Saint-Domingue to plan their revolt. Here prominent early figures of the revolution such as Dutty François Boukman , Jean-François Papillon , Georges Biassou, Jeannot Bullet , and Toussaint gathered to nominate a single leader to guide the revolt. Toussaint, wary of
16942-545: The black and mulatto population of Saint-Domingue became inspired by a multitude of factors that converged on the island in the late 1780s and early 1790s leading them to organize a series of rebellions against the central white colonial assembly in Le Cap . In 1789 two mix-race Creole merchants, Vincent Ogé and Julien Raimond , happened to be in France during the early stages of the French Revolution. Here they began lobbying
17139-420: The campaign to his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines , who became infamous, during and after the war, for massacring mulatto captives and civilians. The number of deaths is contested: the contemporary French general François Joseph Pamphile de Lacroix suggested 10,000 deaths, while the 20th-century Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James claimed there were only a few hundred deaths. In November 1799, during
17336-459: The civil war, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France and passed a new constitution declaring that French colonies would be subject to special laws. Although many Black people in the colonies suspected this meant the re-introduction of slavery, Napoleon began by confirming Louverture's position and promising to maintain existing anti-slavery laws. But he also forbade Louverture to invade Spanish Santo Domingo, an action that would put Louverture in
17533-672: The classic hispanus or hispanicus took the suffix -one from Vulgar Latin , as happened with other words such as bretón (Breton) or sajón (Saxon). Like the other Romance languages , the Spanish language evolved from Vulgar Latin , which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Second Punic War , beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called Paleohispanic languages )—some distantly related to Latin as Indo-European languages , and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in
17730-456: The colony. He was held in general respect, and resorted to a mixture of diplomacy and force to return the field hands to the plantations as emancipated and paid workers. Workers regularly staged small rebellions, protesting poor working conditions, their lack of real freedom, or their fear of a return to slavery. They wanted to establish their own small holdings and work for themselves, rather than on plantations. Another of Louverture's concerns
17927-450: The colony. The planters political and familial connections to Metropolitan France could also foster better diplomatic and economic ties to Europe. In summer 1797, Louverture authorized the return of Bayon de Libertat, the former overseer of the Bréda plantation, with whom he had shared a close relationship with ever since he was enslaved. Sonthonax wrote to Louverture threatening him with prosecution and ordering him to get de Libertat off
18124-830: The common ones; and reserve forces, in the cantons. This created the Peacekeeping Battalion units in Santo Domingo; Yaque Hunters in Santiago; San Felipe in Puerto Plata; Snipers in Azua; and Santa Bárbara in Samaná. By 1899, the forces of the National Army and the Ministry of War and Navy were organized as follows: Monte Cristi: Captain Commander, Lieutenant; Second Lieutenant; 1st Sergeant; 2 2nd Sergeants; Armorer and 30 Corporals and Soldiers. San Francisco de Macorís: same endowment as San Pedro de Macorís. In 1914, its organization
18321-423: The commons, bodies and sides to guarantee order, managing with this organization to change the social scenario, producing a comfortable tranquility during the year of his government and the two years of President Fernando Arturo de Meriño . By virtue of Decree No. 1840, dated March 12, 1880, schools and academies were established in each battalion so that the military could learn to read, write and count, since that
18518-495: The consonant written b (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic b and v . Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring Gascon extending as far north as the Gironde estuary , and found in a small area of Calabria ), attributed by some scholars to a Basque substratum was the mutation of Latin initial f into h- whenever it
18715-629: The country to Spain. The annexation to Spain in principle and the Restoration War later produced a serious rupture in the organization of the Dominican Army, but not in the doctrinal aspect. The disappearance of the Republic and the Spanish occupation would also produce the dismemberment of the army to become a local reserve of the Spanish Army, after a rigorous and careful purification, in which many of
18912-412: The country were 11 regiments: the 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 23, 26, 27, 28. Which all made up a total of 2,200 men and also 2 artillery companies and 3 cavalry regiments; hunters, carabinieri and grenadiers on horseback. All of these were very poorly paid and with very little discipline, the district was commanded by Division General Borgella and the commander of the square was Brigadier General Boregrand who
19109-404: The country's constitution. In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language, and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system, with over 7,000 students studying the language in
19306-444: The country: de Art. Artillería Obreros de infantería de infantería de Infantería By Decree No. 61 dated July 15, 1845, a type of first Organic Law was established, which had 43 articles and repealed Decree No. 23. It established the composition, the use of uniforms, flags and banners; provision on the use and handling of weapons (cannon instruction for artillerymen, rifle and saber for infantry and lance for cavalry), both of
19503-539: The couple and sold them to the crew of the French slave ship Hermione , which then sailed to the French West Indies . The original names of Toussaint's parents are unknown, since the Code Noir mandated that slaves brought to their colonies be made into Catholics, stripped of their African names, and be given more European names in order to assimilate them into the French plantation system. Toussaint's father received
19700-484: The daily functions of the plantation. He took up his old responsibilities of looking after the livestock and care of the horses. By 1789, his responsibilities expanded to include acting as a muleteer , master miller, and possibly a slave-driver, charged with organizing the workforce. During this time the Bréda family attempted to divide the plantation and the slaves on it among a new series of four heirs. In an attempt to protect his foster mother, Pelage, Louverture bought
19897-472: The dangers of taking on such a public role, especially after hearing about what happened to Ogé and Chavannes, went on to nominate Georges Biassou as leader. He would later join his forces as a secretary and lieutenant, and be in command of a small detachment of soldiers. During this time Toussaint took up the name of Monsieur Toussaint, a title that was once been reserved for the white population of Saint-Domingue. Surviving documents show him participating in
20094-631: The economy and security of Saint-Domingue. Worried about the economy, which had stalled, he restored the plantation system using paid labor; negotiated trade agreements with the United Kingdom and the United States and maintained a large and well-trained army. Louverture seized power in Saint-Domingue, established his own system of government, and promulgated his own colonial constitution in 1801 that named him as Governor-General for Life, which challenged Napoleon Bonaparte's authority. In 1802, he
20291-504: The eldest son of Hyppolite, an Allada slave from the slave coast of West Africa , and his second wife Pauline, a slave from the Aja ethnic group, and given the name Toussaint at birth. Louverture's son Issac would later name his great-grandfather, Hyppolite's father, as Gaou Guinou and a son of the King of Allada , although there is little extant evidence of this. The name Gaou possibly originated in
20488-465: The emancipation decree in May 1794, Louverture decided to join the French in June. It is argued by Beaubrun Ardouin that Toussaint was indifferent toward black freedom, concerned primarily for his own safety and resentful over his treatment by the Spanish – leading him to officially join the French on 4 May 1794 when he raised the republican flag over Gonaïves. Thomas Ott sees Louverture as "both
20685-403: The end of the revolution Louverture grew substantially wealthy; owning numerous slaves at Ennery , obtaining thirty-one properties, and earning almost 300,000 colonial livre per year from these properties. As leader of the revolution, this accumulated wealth made Louverture the richest person on Saint-Domingue. Louverture's actions evoked a collective sense of worry among the European powers and
20882-692: The evacuation of all remaining British troops in Saint-Dominigue. On 31 August, they signed a secret treaty that lifted the British Royal Navy 's blockade on Saint-Domingue in exchange for a promise that Louverture would not attempt to cause unrest in the British West Indies . As Louverture's relationship with Hédouville reached the breaking point, an uprising began among the troops of his adopted nephew, Hyacinthe Moïse. Attempts by Hédouville to manage
21079-552: The event of a state of war, all men between the ages of 18 and 50 years old had to serve in the Civic Guard, with the exception of high government officials, judges, priests and invalids. General Luperón, through Decree No. 1834 dated February 18, 1880, instituted compulsory military service, defining the functions of the national reserve as support for regular troops, in war actions against foreigners or internal conflicts. In Santo Domingo and provincial capitals, he formed garrisons and in
21276-483: The extent that, until recent documents uncovered the marriage, few researchers were aware of the existence of Cécile and her children with Louverture. In 1782, Louverture married his second wife, Suzanne Simone-Baptiste , who is thought to have been his cousin or the daughter of his godfather Pierre-Baptiste. Toward the end of his life, Louverture told General Caffarelli that he had fathered at least 16 children, of whom 11 had predeceased him, between his two wives and
21473-455: The first weeks, Louverture eradicated all Spanish supporters from the Cordon de l'Ouest , which he had held on their behalf. He faced attack from multiple sides. His former colleagues in the slave rebellion were now fighting against him for the Spanish. As a French commander, he was faced with British troops who had landed on Saint-Domingue in September, as the British hoped to take advantage of
21670-469: The fledgling slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement . Along with Jean-Jacques Dessalines , Louverture is now known as one of the "Fathers of Haiti". Toussaint Louverture was born as a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue , now known as Haiti . He was a devout Catholic, and was manumitted as an affranchi (ex-slave) before the French Revolution , identifying as a Creole for
21867-661: The following table: Spanish is marked by palatalization of the Latin double consonants ( geminates ) nn and ll (thus Latin annum > Spanish año , and Latin anellum > Spanish anillo ). The consonant written u or v in Latin and pronounced [w] in Classical Latin had probably " fortified " to a bilabial fricative /β/ in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with
22064-403: The following way: Engineers: 2 Companies Military Administration (Intendance): 1 Company. In total, the army consisted of the following: 3 Generals, 42 Chiefs, 320 Officers, 280 Sergeants and 6,942 Corporals and Soldiers. 112 mules for Artillery, 126 for Administration, 100 oxen, 30 carts, 500 tents, 2,000 sapling tools, 18 cannons, 9,000 grenades , 2,200,000 cartridges. After the victory of
22261-466: The former British colony of Belize (known until 1973 as British Honduras ) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language. Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing native Spanish speaking minority, Trinidad and Tobago has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched
22458-584: The grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire." From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered America and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonization of America . Miguel de Cervantes , author of Don Quixote , is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes ("the language of Cervantes"). In
22655-448: The greater part of his life. During his time as an affranchi , he became a salaried employee, an overseer of his former master's plantation, and later became a wealthy slave owner himself; Toussaint Louverture owned several coffee plantations at Petit Cormier, Grande Rivière, and Ennery. At the start of the Haitian revolution he was nearly 50 years old and began his military career as a lieutenant to Georges Biassou , an early leader of
22852-456: The hands of the British and Haitian armies and losing thousands of men to yellow fever , the French capitulated and withdrew permanently from Saint-Domingue the very same year. The Haitian Revolution continued under Louverture's lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines , who declared independence on 1 January 1804, thereby establishing the sovereign state of Haiti. Louverture was born into slavery ,
23049-480: The island and in the coming years supported them financially as they resettled in the United States and mainland France. In 1791, Louverture was involved in negotiations between rebel leaders and the French Governor, Blanchelande , for the release of their white prisoners and a return to work, in exchange for a ban on the use of whips, an extra non-working day per week, and the freedom of imprisoned leaders. When
23246-461: The island. Louverture went over his head and wrote to the French Directoire directly for permission for de Libertat to stay. Only a few weeks later, he began arranging for Sonthonax's return to France that summer. Louverture had several reasons to want to get rid of Sonthonax; officially he said that Sonthonax had tried to involve him in a plot to make Saint-Domingue independent, starting with
23443-496: The island. With the new government, two infantry battalions were created to cover the military positions that are called: one "fixed battalion of Santo Domingo" under the command of Lieutenant Colonel José María de Foxa and the other "battalion of free morenos" under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Pablo Ali . In addition to these corps, the artillery corps was organized under the command of Colonel José Massot; battalions of disciplined militias, of which Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Conti
23640-547: The language happened in Toledo , a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile , in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the early modern period spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas. As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek. Alongside English and French , it
23837-479: The language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward. Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include Gibraltar and Andorra . Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom , France , Italy , and Germany . Spanish is an official language of the European Union . Today,
24034-399: The leadership of the rebellion, discussing strategy, and negotiating with the Spanish supporters of the rebellion for supplies. Wanting to identify with the royalist cause Louverture and other rebels wore white cockades upon their sleeves and crosses of St. Louis . A few days after this gathering, a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman marked the public start of the major slave rebellion in
24231-463: The life of a soldier, and they were sent to the Capital for long military training. The Army grew with admirable discipline. He was brilliant, all about bravery and impressive martial skills. It was almost completely consumed in the fratricidal wars that followed the death of Ramón Cáceres, until the arrival of the Americans when the civic and guerrilla fighters who produced the internal wars already formed
24428-686: The majority of the Spanish speakers live in Hispanic America . Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure —of Argentina , Bolivia (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Cuba , Dominican Republic , Ecuador , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní ), Peru (co-official with Quechua , Aymara , and "the other indigenous languages"), Puerto Rico (co-official with English), Uruguay , and Venezuela . Spanish language has
24625-418: The mantle of the new nation, rather than be subjected to foreign domination. (Despite the busy military activity after the proclamation of National Independence, November 29 has been celebrated to celebrate the anniversary of the National Army, regarding the issuance of Decree No. 23 of that date in 1844, cited above). On December 14, 1844, the 1st and 2nd Dominican Regiments were formed, composed of veterans of
24822-681: The militia corps of the General Captaincy of Santo Domingo for 1721: In 1738, the Regulations for the garrison of the Plaza de Santo Domingo, on the island of Hispaniola, Castles and Forts under its jurisdiction, were promulgated. This was intended to correct many of the defects noted in the army located on the island, such as: inequality in the strength of the companies, in some there were too many soldiers and in others they were lacking; different salaries for officers of identical rank, even giving rise to
25019-401: The model of the grands blancs and rich gens de couleur libres by becoming a planter. He began by renting a small coffee plantation, along with its 13 slaves, from his future son-in-law. One of the slaves Louverture owned at this time is believed to have been Jean-Jacques Dessalines , who would go onto become one of Louverture's most loyal lieutenants and a member of his personal guard during
25216-669: The name Hyppolite upon his baptism on Saint-Domingue , as Latin and Greek names were the most fashionable for slaves at this time, followed by French, and Biblical Christian names . Louverture is thought to have been born on the plantation of Bréda at Haut-du-Cap in Saint-Domingue, where his parents were enslaved and where he would spend the majority of his life before the revolution. His parents would go on to have several children after him, with five surviving infancy; Marie-Jean, Paul, Pierre, Jean, and Gaou, named for his grandfather. Louverture would grow closest to his younger brother Paul, who along with his other siblings were baptized into
25413-470: The name referred to a gap between his front teeth. Despite adhering to royalist views, Louverture began to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution. From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791, he had become committed to its complete abolition. After an offer of land, privileges, and recognizing the freedom of slave soldiers and their families, Jean-François and Biassou formally allied with
25610-423: The newly freed Cécile left Louverture for a wealthy Creole planter, while Louverture had begun a relationship with a woman named Suzanne, who is believed to have gone on to become his second wife. There is little evidence that any formal divorce occurred, as that was illegal at the time. Louverture, in fact, would go on to completely excise his first marriage from his recollections of his pre-revolutionary life, to
25807-483: The north, which had the largest plantations and enslaved population. Louverture did not openly take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion, as he spent the next few weeks sending his family to safety in Santo Domingo and helping his old overseer Bayon de Libertat. Louverture hid him and his family in a nearby wood, and brought them food from a nearby rebel camp. He eventually helped Bayon de Libertat's family escape
26004-661: The northwest of the African mainland. The Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands traces its origins back to the Castilian conquest in the 15th century , and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas, which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish. The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as
26201-411: The offer was rejected, he was instrumental in preventing the massacre of Biassou's white prisoners. The prisoners were released after further negotiations and escorted to Le Cap by Louverture. He hoped to use the occasion to present the rebellion's demands to the colonial assembly, but they refused to meet. Throughout 1792, as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and
26398-472: The officers and soldiers did not fit nor were recognized as such of the "old Dominican Army," as it would be called then. However, in the Dominican Restoration War , given the impossibility of the Spanish forces to control "the insurrectionists," the validity of the doctrine of the disappeared Dominican Army would have to operate in a double sense, since on the one hand it was necessary to activate
26595-476: The ongoing instability to capture the prosperous island. Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville , who was Secretary of State for War for British prime minister William Pitt the Younger , instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the ancien regime , slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists,
26792-466: The paradox that some soldiers earned more than sergeants; diversity in the way each soldier dresses; few orders to ensure discipline, etc. In order to remedy these deficiencies, the Regulation established, among others, the following provisions: Equal and corresponding salaries according to rank and command, plus additional bonuses for Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers, if their companies remained with
26989-583: The plantation as hired help. There is a record that Louverture beat a young petit blanc named Ferere, but was able to escape punishment after being protected by the new plantation overseer, François Antoine Bayon de Libertat. De Libertat had become steward of the Bréda property after it was inherited by Pantaléon de Bréda Jr., a grand blanc (white nobleman), and managed by Bréda's nephew the Count of Noah. In spite or perhaps because of this protection, Louverture went on to engage in other fights. On one occasion, he threw
27186-413: The plantation attorney Bergé off a horse belonging to the Bréda plantation, when he attempted to take it outside the bounds of the property without permission. Until 1938, historians believed that Louverture had been a slave until the start of the revolution. In the later 20th century, discovery of a personal marriage certificate and baptismal record dated between 1776 and 1777 documented that Louverture
27383-501: The plantation where he grew up. Toussaint went from being a slave of the Bréda plantation to becoming a member of the greater community of gens de couleur libres ( free people of color ). This was a diverse group of Affranchis (freed slaves), free blacks of full or majority African ancestry, and Mulattos (mixed-race peoples), which included the children of French planters and their African slaves, as well as distinct multiracial families who had multi-generational mixed ancestries from
27580-609: The plantation, then the Creole French of the greater colony, and eventually the Standard French of the elite class ( grands blancs ) during the revolution. Although he would later become known for his stamina and riding prowess, Louverture earned the nickname Fatras-Bâton ("sickly stick"), in reference to his small thin stature in his youth. Toussaint and his siblings were trained to be domestic servants with Louverture being trained as an equestrian and coachmen after showing
27777-455: The populace forced to flee. White guardsmen in the surrounding area had been murdered, and Spanish patrols sent into the area never returned. Louverture is suspected to have been behind this attack, although was not present. He wrote to the Spanish 5 May protesting his innocence – supported by the Spanish commander of the Gonaïves garrison, who noted that his signature was absent from
27974-529: The population. Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish, with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla. Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education). In Western Sahara , formerly Spanish Sahara ,
28171-423: The reality of an army that is poorly disciplined, poorly armed and with more than 64 Division Generals, 238 Generals of Brigade, 412 Colonels, 514 Commanders, 598 Captains, 490 Lieutenants and 893 Second Lieutenants, which meant nothing more than a burden for the treasury. By 1892, in the government of Ulises Heureaux, the army was organized into military corps, scattered throughout the provinces; auxiliary units, in
28368-641: The rebels' ultimatum. It was not until 18 May that Louverture would claim responsibility for the attack, when he was fighting under the banner of the French. The events at Gonaïves made Lleonart increasingly suspicious of Louverture. When they had met at his camp 23 April, the black general had shown up with 150 armed and mounted men, as opposed to the usual 25, choosing not to announce his arrival or waiting for permission to enter. Lleonart found him lacking his usual modesty or submission, and after accepting an invitation to dinner 29 April, Louverture afterward failed to show. The limp that had confined him to his bed during
28565-575: The recently completed campaign, whose forces would act on a rotating basis to replace the troops of the Southern Expeditionary Army, under the command of General of Brigade Antonio Duvergé and that of the Northern borders, commanded by Division General Francisco A. Salcedo. Several units were also created distributed in different parts of the country: The Ocoa Battalion, in Baní, made up of veterans from
28762-636: The region and composed of two Rifle Companies, one of Hunters and the other of Grenadiers; the Nigua Battalion, in San Cristóbal; the Seibano Regiment, formed with the troops of El Seibo, Hato Mayor and a Battalion based in Higüey. While the Military Forces were formed by the garrisons of Santo Domingo with two Infantry Regiments No. 1, "Dominicano" and No. 2, "Ozama", each formed by two battalions,
28959-425: The remaining members of a former slave's extended family and social circle. Louverture eventually bought the freedom of Cécile, their children, his sister Marie-Jean, his wife's siblings, and a slave named Jean-Baptist, freeing him so that he could legally marry. Louverture's own marriage, however, soon became strained and eventually broke down, as his coffee plantation failed to make adequate returns. A few years later,
29156-506: The remaining nine every 6 months to defend the northern and southern borders. In addition, the Company of Faithful Practicals of the Border was created, a type of Baquian experts with good knowledge of the area, the passes and the relief, who had to act as support for the normal infantry troops. They were made up of natural neighbors of the region and were extremely useful for border control. However,
29353-485: The reserves to defend the Spanish State and on the other hand, officers of that old armed body were going to lead the people in arms against the order of things of the Spanish annexation, thus producing a war of national liberation unprecedented in our history, both for It makes it bloody, as if because of its high intensity. In this sense, this war was not going to predominantly confront the Spanish military doctrine with
29550-480: The restorative forces and the return to national sovereignty, the reorganization and continuity of the Dominican Army was extremely eventful due to a period of more than 50 years of political instability, a product of caudillismo and frequent and endless civil wars. However, the governments of this period that returned the military organization of the First Republic and strengthened their military machinery, managed to
29747-411: The return of the white planters who had fled Saint-Domingue at the start of the revolution. To the ideologically motivated Sonthonax, they were potential counter-revolutionaries who had fled the liberating force of the French Revolution and were forbidden from returning to the colony under pain of death. Louverture on the other hand saw them as wealth generators who could restore the commercial viability of
29944-455: The revolution, he was known to have verbally dictated his letters to his secretaries, who prepared most of his correspondences. A few surviving documents from the end of his life in his own hand confirm that he eventually learned to write, although his Standard French spelling was "strictly phonetic " and closer to the Creole French he spoke for the majority of his life. Beginning in 1789,
30141-475: The rights to all men, inspired a series of revolts across several neighboring French possessions in the Caribbean, which upset much of the established trade between the colonies. Many of the devout Catholic slaves and freedmen, including Toussaint, identified as free Frenchmen and royalists, who desired to protect a series of progressive legal protections afforded to the black citizenry by King Louis XVI and his predecessors. On 14 August 1791, two hundred members of
30338-493: The same cause. On the same day, the beleaguered French commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax , proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French Saint-Domingue, hoping to bring the black troops over to his side. Initially, this failed, perhaps because Louverture and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority. However, on 4 February 1794, the French revolutionary government in France proclaimed
30535-466: The same division that so markedly characterized colonial society remained intact when it came to raising and regulating the militias and classifying them into units of whites, blacks and mixed-race. Another different issue was the participation of the Taínos in the militias, an issue quite regulated and taken care of by the military authorities of areas of or with a large population of said origin, an issue that
30732-612: The same extent not only to remain in power, but to stabilize the country. Such is the case of the governments of Buenaventura Báez and Ulises Heureaux , in what corresponds to the 19th century. On November 1, 1865, just after the restoration of the Republic, the Organization of the Dominican army was as follows: General Ignacio María González made some appreciable efforts regarding military organization, and by virtue of Decree 1358 of 1874, he created in Santo Domingo, an artillery brigade and
30929-415: The same staff of officers and non-commissioned officers as those of the battalions. Each battalion will have its staff composed of a colonel, lieutenant colonel, senior adjutant, qualified second lieutenant, sub-adjutant and an order bugler. The Santo Domingo artillery brigade will have the following staff: a lieutenant colonel, head of the corps; a senior assistant; an enabled; a second lieutenant flag bearer;
31126-568: The school that they were moved to the Collège de la Marche , a division of the old University of Paris . Here in Paris they would regularly dine with members of the French nobility such as Joséphine de Beauharnais , who would go on to become Empress of France as the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte. In September 1796, elections were held to choose colonial representatives for the French national assembly. Louverture's letters show that he encouraged Laveaux to stand, and historians have speculated as to whether he
31323-453: The situation made matters worse and Louverture declined to help him. As the rebellion grew to a full-scale insurrection, Hédouville prepared to leave the island, while Louverture and Dessalines threatened to arrest him as a troublemaker. Hédouville sailed for France in October 1798, nominally transferring his authority to Rigaud. Louverture decided instead to work with Phillipe Roume , a member of
31520-518: The south are supported by the national militias (Spanish and French troops) commanded by Captain Tomas Ramírez Carvajal. But his troops, mostly hatera, were only about 1,700 men, so Ramírez negotiated with the British forces in Jamaica and with the captain general of Puerto Rico to send more men to take Santo Domingo. In August 1809, Juan Sánchez Ramírez triumphantly entered the city as governor of
31717-411: The start of the revolution, as Louverture spent the 1780s attempting to regain the wealth he had lost with the failure of his coffee plantation in the 1770s. It appears that during this time Louverture returned to play an important role on the Bréda plantation to remain closer to old friends and his family. He remained there until the outbreak of the revolution as a salaried employee and contributed to
31914-430: The surname Louverture, from the French word for "opening" or "the one who opened the way". Although some modern writers spell his adopted surname with an apostrophe, as in "L'Ouverture", he did not. The most common explanation is that it refers to his ability to create openings in battle. The name is sometimes attributed to French commissioner Polverel's exclamation: "That man makes an opening everywhere". Some writers think
32111-415: The term castellano to define the official language of the whole of Spain, in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. "the other Spanish languages "). Article III reads as follows: El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas... Castilian is the official Spanish language of
32308-592: The term español (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, español derives from the Occitan word espaignol and that, in turn, derives from the Vulgar Latin * hispaniolus ('of Hispania'). Hispania was the Roman name for the entire Iberian Peninsula . There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist Ramón Menéndez Pidal suggested that
32505-444: The theories of Ramón Menéndez Pidal , local sociolects of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of Burgos , and this dialect was later brought to the city of Toledo , where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century. In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, Leonese , and, according to some authors,
32702-737: The third most used language on the Internet , after English and Chinese. Spanish is the official language of Spain . Upon the emergence of the Castilian Crown as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred. Hard policies imposing
32899-550: The third and which were composed mostly of Dominicans, as well as of the different units of the Civic Guard, which functioned in the provinces, in whose body the patrician Juan Pablo Duarte joined and made his career. The victories of Azua and Santiago , on March 19 and 30, 1844 respectively, were therefore a reflection of the aptitude and military capacity of the Dominicans, who had the advice of military experts of other nationalities, mainly from France, who They preferred to embrace
33096-412: The third commission who had been posted to the Spanish parts of the colony. Although Louverture continued to protest his loyalty to the French government, he had expelled a second government representative from the territory and was about to negotiate another autonomous agreement with one of France's enemies. The United States had suspended trade with France in 1798 because of increasing tensions between
33293-438: The three children from his first marriage and his three sons from his second marriage are well known. Suzanne's eldest child, Placide, is generally thought to have been fathered by Seraphim Le Clerc, a Creole planter. In spite of this, Placide was adopted by Louverture and raised as his own. Louverture went on to have at least two sons with Suzanne: Isaac, born in 1784, and Saint-Jean, born in 1791. They would remain enslaved until
33490-533: The title Deguenon, meaning "old man" or "wise man" in the Allada kingdom, making Gaou Guinou and his son Hyppolite members of the bureaucracy or nobility, but not members of the royal family. In Africa, Hyppolite and his first wife, Catherine, were forced into enslavement due to a series of imperialist wars of expansion by the Kingdom of Dahomey into the Allada territory. In order to remove their political rivals and obtain European trade goods , Dahomean slavers separated
33687-420: The varying different populations on the island. The gens de couleur libres strongly identified with Saint-Domingue, with a popular slogan being that while the French felt at home in France, and the slaves felt at home in Africa, they felt at home on the island. Now enjoying a greater degree of relative freedom, Louverture dedicated himself to building wealth and gaining further social mobility through emulating
33884-531: The varying groups within Saint-Dominigue and was successful in this effort. His favor of fraternity and strict discipline defined the kind of leader he was. After hard fighting, he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French General Étienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux , but it was in these battles that the French first recognized him as a significant military leader. Some time in 1792–1793, Toussaint adopted
34081-450: The weapons there is a diversity of origins, where due to historical circumstances French, Spanish and even North American predominated towards the end of the war. The social extraction of this Army was predominantly peasant and this constituted in principle a serious problem, since during the campaigns, Dominican agriculture and livestock were stripped of labor, leading national production to moments of almost total inactivity, therefore that on
34278-409: The wheel in the public square in Le Cap in February 1791. For the slaves on the island worsening conditions due to the neglect of legal protections afforded them by the Code Noir stirred animosities and made a revolt more attractive compared to the continued exploitation by the grands and petits blancs . Then the political and social disability caused by the French Revolution 's attempt to expand
34475-447: Was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution . During his life, Louverture first fought and allied with Spanish forces against Saint-Domingue Royalists , then joined with Republican France , becoming Governor-General-for-life of Saint-Domingue , and lastly fought against Bonaparte 's republican troops. As a revolutionary leader, Louverture displayed military and political acumen that helped transform
34672-447: Was a freeman , meaning that he had been manumitted sometime between 1772 and 1776, the time de Libertat had become overseer. This finding retrospectively clarified a private letter that Louverture sent to the French government in 1797, in which he mentioned he had been free for more than twenty years. Upon being freed, Toussaint took up the name of Toussaint de Bréda (Toussaint of Bréda), or more simply Toussaint Bréda, in reference to
34869-470: Was an aspiration of General Luperón: "that the "The military class from today onwards will not be among us a threatening machine of minions of power, but rather a group of citizens who know their duties and know how to defend and protect the legitimate rights of governments and the people." If there is anything to understand from the documents and laws cited here that organized the army, it is that they attend more to idealized images and budgetary planning than to
35066-419: Was an important enclave throughout the colonial period and hosted the Court of Santo Domingo, the first in America (1511), whose jurisdiction extended over the entire Caribbean . In 1697, by the Peace of Ryswick, it was divided into two communities: the Spanish in the eastern area and the French in the western; remaining this way until 1795, with the transfer of sovereignty over the west of the island to France by
35263-416: Was assisted by three general adjutants. In Samaná there was General Jousint with 400 men, in Seibo a Brigadier General in command of 100 men, in Bayaguana a Colonel with 80 men, in Santiago General Alexandre Morissette with 200 and in the interior towns the same commanders as there were before Boyer. The National Army is called as such from Law No. 928, of May 17, 1928. However, this land component, defined as
35460-424: Was based on the existence of two battalions of 382 soldiers: the Ozama, based in the La Fuerza fortress of Santo Domingo, and the Yaque, which was stationed in the fortress of Santiago, and also had several Commands. In addition, since 1879 there was a Cavalry Squadron of 162 men, an Artillery Company of 110 men and two military bands of 16 drums and bugles, one for each battalion. They wore the blue and red uniform (of
35657-407: Was characterized by its effectiveness in the fights and its loyalty to the central government. They dressed in khaki yellow, with leather leggings, a felt hat, carrying long sabers and carbines. With the takeover of customs by American officials with the modus vivendi, a border guard was organized to prevent illegal trade on the border. This guard was made up of 5 American officers and 125 men. By 1909,
35854-423: Was created by the viceroy (archbishop) Francisco Javier de Lizana, to reinforce the aforementioned island with the intention of stopping any attempt at Napoleonic expansion towards the American continent. The strength of this body consisted of 2 companies of riflemen and 1 of grenadiers, of 100 men each. The reconquest army led by Brigadier General Juan Sánchez Ramírez , Diego Polanco in Cibao and Ciriaco Ramírez in
36051-581: Was developed in the cities of Toledo , in the 13th to 16th centuries, and Madrid , from the 1570s. The development of the Spanish sound system from that of Vulgar Latin exhibits most of the changes that are typical of Western Romance languages , including lenition of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin vīta > Spanish vida ). The diphthongization of Latin stressed short e and o —which occurred in open syllables in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in
36248-446: Was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see Iberian Romance languages ). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the Reconquista , and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the Arabic of Al-Andalus , much of it indirectly, through the Romance Mozarabic dialects (some 4,000 Arabic -derived words, make up around 8% of the language today). The written standard for this new language
36445-713: Was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The h- , still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many f -/ h - doublets in modern Spanish: Fernando and Hernando (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ferrero and herrero (both Spanish for "smith"), fierro and hierro (both Spanish for "iron"), and fondo and hondo (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though fondo means "bottom", while hondo means "deep"); additionally, hacer ("to make")
36642-421: Was formed of 250 men, divided into 5 companies of 50 men each, and the La Vega battalion was to be formed by 3 companies of 50 men each; one of them formed by soldiers from Moca and established in that city, in addition to a music band for each battalion. The artillery brigade will be made up of 200 men (divided into 4 companies of 50 men) and the artillery companies of 63 men, were made up of 50 private soldiers and
36839-451: Was in sole command of French Saint-Domingue, except for a semi-autonomous state in the south, where general André Rigaud had rejected the authority of the third commission. Both generals continued harassing the British, whose position on Saint-Domingue was increasingly weak. Louverture was negotiating their withdrawal when France's latest commissioner, Gabriel Hédouville , arrived in March 1798, with orders to undermine his authority. Nearing
37036-401: Was invited to a parley by French Divisional General Jean-Baptiste Brunet , but was arrested upon his arrival. He was deported to France and jailed at the Fort de Joux . He died in 1803. Although Louverture died before the final and most violent stage of the Haitian Revolution, his achievements set the grounds for the Haitian army's final victory. Suffering massive losses in multiple battles at
37233-403: Was made up of 8 men and the half brigade staff was made up of 4 men. The cavalry was organized into squadrons, made up of companies, with a strength of 53 men; The squadron's staff was made up of 3 men. For that same year of 1845, the main officers of the Dominican army were: In 1845 the land forces that the Expeditionary Armies had on the Southern and Northern Borders were the following: During
37430-441: Was not the case in Santo Domingo. In 1757, there was an uprising by the troops of the fixed battalion of Santo Domingo who locked themselves in the Primate Cathedral and threatened to murder their officers for non-payment of their salaries (3 years), with the mediation of the Archbishop they were paid the only amount that the royal funds can contribute (3 months each) and the rest is requested from Mexico as extraordinary, forgiveness
37627-533: Was noted for opening the warehouses to the public, proving that they were empty of the chains that residents feared had been imported to prepare for a return to slavery. He was promoted to commander of the West Province two months later, and in 1797 was appointed as Saint-Domingue's top-ranking officer. Laveaux proclaimed Louverture as Lieutenant Governor, announcing at the same time that he would do nothing without his approval, to which Louverture replied: "After God, Laveaux." A few weeks after Louverture's triumph over
37824-421: Was quoted as saying that " I am black, but I have the soul of a white man " in reference to his self-identification as a Frenchman, loyalty to the French nation, and Catholicism. Sonthonax, who had married a free black woman by this time, countered with " I am white, but I have the soul of a black man " in reference to his strong abolitionist and secular republican sentiments. They strongly disagreed about accepting
38021-481: Was returned to French rule in an atmosphere of order and celebration. In July, Louverture and Rigaud met commissioner Hédouville together. Hoping to create a rivalry that would diminish Louverture's power, Hédouville displayed a strong preference for Rigaud, and an aversion to Louverture. However, General Maitland was also playing on French rivalries and evaded Hédouville's authority to deal with Louverture directly. In August, Louverture and Maitland signed treaties for
38218-462: Was revoked by Michel Temer after the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff . In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken. Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the Spanish colonial period . Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in
38415-441: Was seeking to place a firm supporter in France or to remove a rival in power. Sonthonax was also elected, either at Louverture's instigation or on his own initiative. While Laveaux left Saint-Domingue in October, Sonthonax remained. Sonthonax, a fervent revolutionary and fierce supporter of racial equality, soon rivaled Louverture in popularity. Although their goals were similar, they had several points of conflict. While Louverture
38612-493: Was superior leader; cavalry squadrons and urban and rural militia companies and Italian pickets formed by 4 captains, 3 lieutenants, 2 second lieutenants, 6 sergeants, 3 drummers, 4 corporals and 62 soldiers. At the time of the invasion, which was carried out more or less peacefully, the "Cantabria" regiment withdrew to New Spain along with the artillery company. The fixed battalion was taken to Port-au-Prince and brutally massacred on Boyer's orders. The Haitian forces that occupied
38809-407: Was to manage potential rivals for power within the French part of the colony. The most serious of these was the mulatto commander Jean-Louis Villatte, based in Cap-Français . Louverture and Villate had competed over the command of some sections of troops and territory since 1794. Villatte was thought to be somewhat racist toward black soldiers such as Louverture and planned to ally with André Rigaud ,
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