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65-847: Dohrn may refer to: People [ edit ] Anton Dohrn (1840–1909), German biologist and Darwinist Bernardine Dohrn (born 1942), American political radical Carl August Dohrn (1806–1892), German entomologist Georg Dohrn (1867–1942), German conductor and pianist Heinrich Wolfgang Ludwig Dohrn (1838–1913), German entomologist Rinaldo Dohrn or Reinhard Dohrn (1880–1962), German-Italian zoologist Walt Dohrn (born 1970), American voice actor, screenwriter, animator, television director, and comedian Ships [ edit ] FRV Anton Dohrn , German Fisheries Research Vessel launched 1954 active into 1980s. Anton Dohrn , University of Southern California, Venice Marine Biological Station vessel (35 feet (10.7 m)) active in scientific work on

130-472: A "new working class," which, despite education and a perception of themselves as middle class, were part of the working class because they did not own the means of production, and were wage earners paid to produce a piece of capital. The professional–managerial class seek higher rank status and salaries and tend to have incomes above the average for their country. Modern definitions of the term "middle class" are often politically motivated and vary according to

195-417: A greater rate than the middle class, that rather than growing, India's middle class may be shrinking in size. According to a 2014 study by Standard Bank economist Simon Freemantle, a total of 15.3 million households in 11 surveyed nations of Africa are middle class: Angola , Ethiopia , Ghana , Kenya , Mozambique , Nigeria , South Sudan , Sudan , Tanzania , Uganda , and Zambia . In South Africa ,

260-462: A marine zoological station (one was later established as Observatoire Oceanologique de Villefranche ). The use of marine organisms as models for study had been promoted in Germany by Johannes Peter Müller (1801-1858). The Straits of Messina were known for their richness and had been studied by Spallanzani and August D. Krohn in the past. In Messina, Dohrn and Miklouho-Maclay conceived a plan to cover

325-514: A paper on fossil insects Zur Kenntniss der Insecten in den Primärformationen . In this he describes Eugereon boeckingi ( Palaeodictyoptera ). He became a privatdozent at Jena in 1868. Dohrn's ideas of zoology changed in the summer 1862 when he returned to study at Jena , where Ernst Haeckel introduced him to Darwin 's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. He saw comparative anatomy, physiology and embryology as means to determine

390-580: A principle of succession of functions in 1875 on how one organ could become the basis for the evolution of another of an entirely different function. He was an elected International Member of the American Philosophical Society . The institution transitioned from a private one to a public Italian organization through the subsequent management by his son Reinhard Dohrn . Dohrn was born in Stettin (Szczecin) , Prussian Province of Pomerania , into

455-583: A regime change. Estimates vary widely on the number of middle-class people in India . A 1983 article put the Indian middle class as somewhere between 70 and 100 million. According to one study the middle class in India stood at between 60 and 80 million by 1990. According to The Economist , 78 million of India's population are considered middle class as of 2017, if defined using the cutoff of those making more than $ 10 per day,

520-538: A report conducted by the Institute for Race Relations in 2015 estimated that between 10% and 20% of South Africans are middle class, based on various criteria. An earlier study estimated that in 2008 21.3% of South Africans were members of the middle class. A study by EIU Canback indicates 90% of Africans fall below an income of $ 10 a day. The proportion of Africans in the $ 10–$ 20 middle class (excluding South Africa), rose from 4.4% to only 6.2% between 2004 and 2014. Over

585-529: A research institute of international importance in a large university town that itself had a strong international element. After a visiting a newly opened aquarium in Berlin, the Berliner Aquarium Unter den Linden he decided that charging the general public to visit an aquarium might earn the laboratory enough money to pay a salary for a permanent assistant. Naples, with a population of 500,000 inhabitants,

650-419: A standard used by the India's National Council of Applied Economic Research. If including those with incomes between $ 2 and $ 10 per day, the number increases to 604 million. This was termed by researchers as the "new middle class". Measures considered include geography, lifestyle, income, and education. The World Inequality Report in 2018 further concluded that elites (i.e. the top 10%) are accumulating wealth at

715-427: A wealthy middle-class family. His grandfather, Heinrich Dohrn, had been a wine and spice merchant , and had made the family fortune by trading in sugar and a director of the sugar refinery Pommersche Provinzial Zuckersiederei. This wealth and advice from Alexander von Humboldt , allowed Anton's father, Carl August (1806-1892), to devote himself to his various hobbies; travelling, folk music and insects. Anton,

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780-476: A whole, exclusive of Indians, constituted just under 20% of the national society. A 1964 study estimated that 45 million Latin Americans belonged to the urban middle class while 15 million to the urban well-to-do and 8 million to the rural middle class and well-to-do. In Brazil , according to one estimate, in 1970 the lower middle class comprised 12% of the population, while the upper middle class comprised 3%. In

845-663: A working paper by the OECD asserted that 1.8 billion people were now members of the global "middle class". Credit Suisse's Global Wealth Report 2014, released in October 2014, estimated that one billion adults belonged to the "middle class," with wealth anywhere between the range of $ 10,000–$ 100,000. According to a study carried out by the Pew Research Center , a combined 16% of the world's population in 2011 were "upper-middle income" and "upper income". An April 2019 OECD report said that

910-586: A zoologist. Dohrn received an early education which was based on humanist ideals. He went to study medicine and zoology and Koenigsberg, Bonn, Jena and Berlin. was initially interested in Hemiptera . In 1859, he published Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Harpactoridae in Entomologische Zeitung and the more important Catalogus hemipterorum . He gained his doctorate from Breslau in November 1865 with his thesis "On

975-425: Is impossible to distinguish clearly among the multiple dimensions of inequality and the various mechanisms at work." In February 2009, The Economist asserted that over half the world's population now belongs to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of discretionary income , so that they do not live from hand-to-mouth as

1040-864: The Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory ( Aberdeen , 1899), and the Bangor Marine Station ( Queen's University of Belfast , 1903). Dohrn's name has been immortalised in an undersea feature, the Anton Dohrn Seamount , a seamount in the Rockall Trough , to the north-west of the British Isles, which has become known for the great biodiversity which lives on the cold-water coral, Lophelia pertusa , in this region. The Carnegie Institution's Department of Marine Biology laboratory at Dry Tortugas , Florida placed

1105-867: The Hopkins Marine Station , opened in California . In Britain, current marine laboratories that originate from this time include the Dunstaffnage Marine Station (today Scottish Association for Marine Science , 1884), the Gatty Marine Laboratory ( University of St Andrews , 1884), the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom ( Plymouth , 1888), the Dove Marine Laboratory ( Newcastle University , 1897),

1170-513: The bourgeoisie ; later, with the further differentiation of classes as capitalist societies developed, the term came to be synonymous with the term petite bourgeoisie . The boom-and-bust cycles of capitalist economies result in the periodic (and more or less temporary) impoverishment and proletarianization of much of the petite bourgeois world, resulting in their moving back and forth between working-class and petite-bourgeois status. The typical modern definitions of "middle class" tend to ignore

1235-665: The motor vessel Anton Dohrn in service in July 1911 for ocean science work. The vessel served in the United States Navy as the patrol vessel Anton Dohrn (SP-1086) from 1917 to 1919. Middle class Terminology differs in the United States , where the term middle class describes people who in other countries would be described as working class . There has been significant global middle-class growth over time. In February 2009, The Economist asserted that over half of

1300-451: The "Stazione Zoologica di Messina", but quickly realized the technical difficulties of studying marine life without a permanent structure and support facilities, such as trained personnel and a library. In 1870 Dohrn decided that Naples would be a better place for his Station. This choice was due to the greater biological richness of the Gulf of Naples and also to the possibility of starting

1365-681: The "middle class" which stands between the ruling capitalist "owners of the means of production" and the working class (whose income is derived solely from hourly wages). Pioneer 20th century American Marxist theoretician Louis C. Fraina (Lewis Corey) defined the middle class as "the class of independent small enterprisers, owners of productive property from which a livelihood is derived". From Fraina's perspective, this social category included "propertied farmers" but not propertyless tenant farmers . Middle class also included salaried managerial and supervisory employees but not "the masses of propertyless, dependent salaried employees. Fraina speculated that

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1430-558: The 1990s as "New Labour" , a party competing with the Conservative Party for the votes of the middle-class as well as those of the Labour Party's traditional group of voters – the working-class. Around 40% of British people consider themselves to be middle class, and this number has remained relatively stable over the last few decades. According to the OECD , the middle class refers to households with income between 75% and 200% of

1495-704: The Anatomy of Hemiptera". He visited Heligoland along with Ernst Haeckel to examine marine organisms for the first time. Haeckel talked about a zoological station at this time. In 1867 Dohrn visited Millport , Isle of Cumbrae as a guest of David Robertson (1806-1896) who had founded the Millport Biological Station. During this period he became associated with the English scientific establishment through his father's friendship with Henry Tibbats Stainton . He also met Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895). In 1866, he published

1560-499: The California coast. Anton Dohrn  (1911) , American motor yacht used in scientific work See also [ edit ] Anton Dohrn Seamount Dohrn's thrush-babbler ( Horizorhinus dohrni ), a bird endemic to São Tomé and Príncipe Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dohrn . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

1625-466: The Chinese middle class differs substantially from its Western counterparts. Despite its growth, it remains a relatively small group profoundly joined with the Chinese state. This unique relationship challenges assumptions about its role in political change. Criticisms from this demographic often center on improving efficiency and social justice within the existing political framework, rather than advocating for

1690-467: The Chinese population were considered middle class as of 2017. China's middle class represents a significant market force with effects extending beyond its borders. The promise of increased prosperity and a consumer society has been a driving force behind this growth, while also suggesting the potential for political changes similar to those seen in Europe and North America. However, it's important to note that

1755-702: The Stazione Zoologica, and the new way of thinking and funding research are the main legacies of Dohrn. The model was copied a number of times throughout the world. In 1878 Johns Hopkins University founded the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory, under the direction of W.K. Brooks . Then, in 1888, the Marine Biological Laboratory was founded at Woods Hole and in 1892 the first laboratory on the United States West Coast ,

1820-606: The Stazione for one year where he or she would find available all that was required to conduct research (laboratory space, animal supply, chemicals, an exceptional library and expert staff). He contributed his own library and obtained donations of books from publishers and authors, including Darwin. These facilities were supplied with no strings attached, in the sense that investigators were completely free to pursue their own projects and ideas. This system worked so that when Anton Dohrn died in 1909 more than 2,200 scientists from Europe and

1885-466: The United States had worked at Naples and more than 50 tables-per-year had been rented out. It might be said that international scientific collaboration in the modern sense was born at the Stazione, based on quick and free communication of ideas, methods and results. Dohrn suffered from heart problems in his last years and died in Munich on September 26, 1909. He was buried on October 3 at Jena. The success of

1950-479: The city. In France , the middle classes helped drive the French Revolution . This "middle class" eventually overthrew the ruling monarchists of feudal society, thus becoming the new ruling class or bourgeoisie in the new capitalist-dominated societies. The modern usage of the term "middle-class", however, dates to the 1913 UK Registrar-General's report, in which the statistician T. H. C. Stevenson identified

2015-475: The comparative anatomist St. George Mivart . Dohrn's ideas on functional phylogenetics underlie some of the embryological hypotheses such as the origin of the vertebrate jaw from gill arches. In his original writings he claimed that gill slits had changed into a variety of vertebrate organs. From 1850 to 1852, the zoologist and geologist Carl Vogt had lived in Nice where he tried unsuccessfully to enlist support for

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2080-510: The developed one, since their money incomes do not match developed country levels, but the percentage of it which is discretionary does. By this definition, the number of middle-class people in Asia exceeded that in the West sometime around 2007 or 2008. The Economist 's article pointed out that in many emerging countries, the middle class has not grown incrementally but explosively. The point at which

2145-504: The driving force for sustainable development. This assumption, however, is contested (see below). As the American middle class is estimated by some researchers to comprise approximately 45% of the population, The Economist 's article would put the size of the American middle class below the world average. This difference is due to the extreme difference in definitions between The Economist 's and many other models . In 2010,

2210-402: The entire category of salaried employees might be adequately described as a "new middle class" in economic terms, although this remained a social grouping in which "most of whose members are a new proletariat." In 1977, Barbara Ehrenreich and John Ehrenreich defined a new class in the United States as "salaried mental workers who do not own the means of production and whose major function in

2275-434: The evolutionary history of various organisms. At that time comparative embryology was the keystone of morphological evolutionary studies, based on Haeckel's recapitulation theory , the idea that an organism during its embryonic development passes through the major stages of the evolutionary past of its species . Morphology became one of the major ways in which zoologists sought to expand and develop Darwinian theory in

2340-436: The exigencies of political purpose which they were conceived to serve in the first place as well as due to the multiplicity of more- or less-scientific methods used to measure and compare wealth between modern advanced industrial states, where poverty is relatively low and the distribution of wealth more egalitarian in a relative sense, and in developing countries, where poverty and a profoundly unequal distribution of wealth crush

2405-599: The fact that the classical petite-bourgeoisie is and has always been the owner of a small-to medium-sized business whose income is derived almost exclusively from the employment of workers; "middle class" came to refer to the combination of the labour aristocracy , professionals , and salaried, white-collar workers . The size of the middle class depends on how it is defined, whether by education, wealth , environment of upbringing, social network , manners or values, etc. These are all related, but are far from deterministically dependent. The following factors are often ascribed in

2470-543: The first sense, it is used for the bourgeoisie (the urban merchant and professional class) that arose between the aristocracy and the proletariat in the waning years of feudalism in the Marxist model. Vladimir Lenin stated that the "peasantry ... in Russia constitute eight- or nine-tenths of the petty bourgeoisie". However, in modern developed countries, Marxist writers define the petite bourgeoisie as primarily comprising (as

2535-462: The globe with a network of zoological research stations, analogous to railway stations, where scientists could stop, collect material, make observations and conduct experiments, before moving on to the next station. In 1859-60 Haeckel and his students described 144 new species of Radiolaria collected in the waters. For a while Messina came to be called the "Mecca of the German Privat-Dozent." It

2600-405: The international status of the Stazione and to guarantee its economic and hence political independence and freedom of research , Dohrn introduced a series of innovative measures to finance his project. Firstly, the rental of work and research space (the "Bench system"), for an annual fee universities, governments, scientific institutions, private foundations or individuals could send one scientist to

2665-405: The latter years of the 19th century. Dohrn chose to become a "Darwinian morphologist". Dohrn received his doctorate in 1865 at Breslau under Eduard Grube , and his Habilitation in 1868 at Jena with Rudolf Virchow , Ernst Haeckel and Carl Gegenbaur . The study subjects were medicine and zoology , and his Jena monograph was Studien zur Embryologie der Arthropoden . From 1868 to 1870, he

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2730-484: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dohrn&oldid=1245350162 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Anton Dohrn Felix Anton Dohrn FRS FRSE (29 December 1840 – 26 September 1909)

2795-465: The literature on this topic to a "middle class:" In the United States, by the end of the twentieth century, more people identified themselves as middle-class (with insignificant numbers identifying themselves as upper-class). The Labour Party in the UK, which grew out of the organised labour movement and originally drew almost all of its support from the working-class, reinvented itself under Tony Blair in

2860-426: The median national income. Marxism defines social classes according to their relationship with the means of production . The main basis of social class division of Marxism: the possession of means of production, the role and position it plays in social labor organization (production process), the distribution of wealth and resources and the amount. Marxist writers have used the term middle class in various ways. In

2925-570: The mid-1970s it was estimated by one authority that the Brazilian middle class comprised between 15 and 25% of the population. A 1969 economic survey estimated that 15% of Brazilians belonged to the middle class. By 1970, according to one study, the middle class of Argentina comprised 38% of the economically active population, compared with 19% in Brazil and 24% in Mexico . A 1975 study on Mexico estimated that

2990-461: The middle class as those falling between the upper-class and the working-class . The middle class includes: professionals, managers, and senior civil servants. The chief defining characteristic of membership in the middle-class is control of significant human capital while still being under the dominion of the elite upper class, who control much of the financial and legal capital in the world. Within capitalism, "middle-class" initially referred to

3055-452: The middle class in 1968 (defined as families earning between 2,000 and 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 36.4% of the population, while the upper class (defined as families earning over 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 9.4% of the population and the lower class (defined as families earning less than 2,000 pesos annually) comprised 53.9% of the population. According to a study by the World Bank ,

3120-640: The millennial generation is being pushed out of the middle class throughout the Western world. Since the beginning of the 21st century, China 's middle class has grown by significant margins. According to the Center for Strategic and International Studies , by 2013, some 420 million people, or 31%, of the Chinese population qualified as middle class. Based on the World Bank definition of middle class as those having with daily spending between $ 10 and $ 50 per day, nearly 40% of

3185-428: The name implies) owners of small to medium-sized businesses, who derive their income from the exploitation of wage-laborers (and who are in turn exploited by the "big" bourgeoisie i.e. bankers, owners of large corporate trusts, etc.) as well as the highly educated professional class of doctors, engineers, architects, lawyers, university professors, salaried middle-management of capitalist enterprises of all sizes, etc. – as

3250-589: The number of Latin Americans who are middle class rose from 103 million to 152 million between 2003 and 2009. In 2012, the "middle class" in Russia was estimated as 15% of the whole population. Due to sustainable growth , the pre-crisis level was exceeded. In 2015, research from the Russian Academy of Sciences estimated that around 15% of the Russian population are "firmly middle class", while around another 25% are "on

3315-412: The poor do, and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter. This allows people to buy consumer goods, improve their health care, and provide for their children's education. Most of the emerging middle class consists of people who are middle class by the standards of the developing world but not

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3380-491: The poor start entering the middle class by the millions is alleged to be the time when poor countries get the maximum benefit from cheap labour through international trade , before they price themselves out of world markets for cheap goods. It is also a period of rapid urbanization, when subsistence farmers abandon marginal farms to work in factories, resulting in a several-fold increase in their economic productivity before their wages catch up to international levels. That stage

3445-612: The same period, the proportion of " upper middle class " income ($ 20–$ 50 a day) went from 1.4% to 2.3%. According to a 2014 study by the German Development Institute, the middle class of Sub-Saharan Africa rose from 14 million to 31 million people between 1990 and 2010. Over the years estimates on the size of the Latin America 's middle class have varied. A 1960 study stated that the middle strata in Latin America as

3510-692: The social division of labor ... [is] ... the reproduction of capitalist culture and capitalist class relations;" the Ehrenreichs named this group the "professional–managerial class". This group of middle-class professionals is distinguished from other social classes by their training and education (typically business qualifications and university degrees), with example occupations including academics and teachers , social workers , engineers , accountants , managers , nurses , and middle-level administrators. The Ehrenreichs developed their definition from studies by André Gorz , Serge Mallet, and others, of

3575-591: The station to visiting scientists in September 1873, and to the general public in January 1874. In 1875 Dohrn published Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Functionswechsels: Genealogische Skizzen which proposed the "change of function" theory of the origin of vertebrates. He suggested that an organ could have secondary functions in addition to their primary function and that the subsidiary functions could become primary over evolutionary time. In order to promote

3640-567: The vast majority of the population. Many of these methods of comparison have been harshly criticised; for example, economist Thomas Piketty , in his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century , describes one of the most commonly used comparative measures of wealth across the globe, the Gini coefficient , as being an example of "synthetic indices ... which mix very different things, such as inequality with respect to labor and capital, so that it

3705-590: The world's population belonged to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of discretionary income and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter. The term "middle class" is first attested in James Bradshaw's 1745 pamphlet Scheme to prevent running Irish Wools to France. Another phrase used in early modern Europe

3770-450: The youngest son, read zoology and medicine at various German universities ( Königsberg , Bonn , Jena and Berlin ). The attitudes of his father, a liberal one with interest in people, literature, music ( Felix Mendelssohn was his godfather ) and science was to have a key role in Dohrn's own work as a promoter of scientific collaboration. His brother Heinrich Wolfgang Ludwig Dohrn was also

3835-414: Was "the middling sort". The term "middle class" has had several and sometimes contradictory meanings. Friedrich Engels saw the category as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry in late-feudalist society. While the nobility owned much of the countryside, and the peasantry worked it, a new bourgeoisie (literally "town-dwellers") arose around mercantile functions in

3900-503: Was Miklouho-Maclay who introduced Dohrn to the Russian-Polish de Baranowski family. In 1874 Dohrn married their eldest daughter, sixteen-year-old Maria Baranowska. They had four children Boguslaw, Wolfgang, Harald and Reinhard. Due to her linguistic abilities, Maria became a successful translator . Dohrn realised how useful it would be for scientists to arrive at a location and find a ready to use laboratory. Dohrn rented two rooms for

3965-475: Was a Docent in zoology at Jena. During these times, he worked several times at facilities located by the sea: Heligoland alongside Haeckel in 1865, Hamburg in 1866, Millport , Scotland with David Robertson in 1867 and 1868 and moved to Messina , Italy, during the winter of 1868 together with his friend and colleague Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay to work on the marine life of the Straits of Messina . In 1870 Dohrn

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4030-525: Was a prominent German Darwinist and the founder and first director of the first marine-biological and zoological research station in the world, the Stazione Zoologica in Naples , Italy. The institution became a centre for the exchange of biological ideas through the network of visitors from around the world. He worked on embryology and examined vertebrate origins in terms of functional phylogeny and proposed

4095-480: Was called up to (briefly) serve in the Franco-Prussian War . Dohrn's view of Haeckel's philosophical generalizations changed after he read Immanuel Kant and F. A. Lange 's Geschichte des Materialismus (1866). Among Dohrn's most highly cited theoretical contributions was his so-called "principle of succession of functions". It was derived from pre-existing ideas, especially those that had been proposed by

4160-427: Was one of the largest and most attractive cities of Europe and also had a considerable flow of tourists (30,000 a year) that could potentially visit the aquarium. Dohrn overcame the doubts of the city authorities and persuaded them to give him, free-of-charge, a plot of land at the sea edge, in the beautiful Villa Comunale on the condition that he promised to build the Stazione Zoologica at his own expense. He opened

4225-461: Was reached in China sometime between 1990 and 2005, when the Chinese "middle class" grew from 15% to 62% of the population and is just being reached in India now. The Economist predicted that surge across the poverty line should continue for a couple of decades and the global middle class will grow exponentially between now and 2030. Based on the rapid growth, scholars expect the global middle class to be

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