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109-500: In organic chemistry , the Diels–Alder reaction is a chemical reaction between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene , commonly termed the dienophile , to form a substituted cyclohexene derivative. It is the prototypical example of a pericyclic reaction with a concerted mechanism . More specifically, it is classified as a thermally allowed [4+2] cycloaddition with Woodward–Hoffmann symbol [ π 4 s + π 2 s ]. It

218-510: A =4), thiols (13), malonates (13), alcohols (17), aldehydes (20), nitriles (25), esters (25), then amines (35). Amines are very basic, and are great nucleophiles/attackers. The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous series according to their state of saturation : The rest of the group is classified according to the functional groups present. Such compounds can be "straight-chain", branched-chain or cyclic. The degree of branching affects characteristics, such as

327-450: A Schrock catalyst gave the second ring of the alkaloid core. The diene in this instance is notable as an example of a 1-amino-3-siloxybutadiene, otherwise known as a Rawal diene. (+)-Sterpurene can be prepared by asymmetric D-A reaction that featured a remarkable intramolecular Diels–Alder reaction of an allene . The [2,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement of the thiophenyl group to give the sulfoxide as below proceeded enantiospecifically due to

436-708: A molar mass less than approximately 1000 g/mol. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes , carbon compounds with spheroidal and tubular structures, have stimulated much research into the related field of materials science . The first fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Sir Harold W. Kroto of the United Kingdom and by Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl Jr., of the United States. Using a laser to vaporize graphite rods in an atmosphere of helium gas, these chemists and their assistants obtained cagelike molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms (C60) joined by single and double bonds to form

545-444: A 9,10 adduct with maleic anhydride at 80 °C and even with acetylene , a weak dienophile, at 250 °C. In a normal demand Diels–Alder reaction, the dienophile has an electron-withdrawing group in conjugation with the alkene; in an inverse-demand scenario, the dienophile is conjugated with an electron-donating group. Dienophiles can be chosen to contain a "masked functionality". The dienophile undergoes Diels–Alder reaction with

654-546: A branch of organic chemistry. Although the history of biochemistry might be taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term biochemistry was coined around the start of 20th century. Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as BIOSIS Previews and Biological Abstracts , which began in

763-423: A broad range of industrial and commercial products including, among (many) others: plastics , synthetic rubber , organic adhesives , and various property-modifying petroleum additives and catalysts . The majority of chemical compounds occurring in biological organisms are carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and biochemistry is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence

872-506: A carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions. The era of the pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the German company, Bayer , first manufactured acetylsalicylic acid—more commonly known as aspirin . By 1910 Paul Ehrlich and his laboratory group began developing arsenic-based arsphenamine , (Salvarsan), as

981-415: A class of hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in the latex of various species of plants, which is the basis for making rubber . Biologists usually classify the above-mentioned biomolecules into four main groups, i.e., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Petroleum and its derivatives are considered organic molecules, which is consistent with the fact that this oil comes from

1090-462: A combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds. The development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer . In 2002, 17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from petrochemicals . In

1199-419: A common reaction is a substitution reaction written as: where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile . The number of possible organic reactions is infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps

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1308-451: A diene introducing such a functionality onto the product molecule. A series of reactions then follow to transform the functionality into a desirable group. The end product cannot be made in a single DA step because equivalent dienophile is either unreactive or inaccessible. An example of such approach is the use of α-chloroacrylonitrile (CH 2 =CClCN). When reacted with a diene, this dienophile will introduce α-chloronitrile functionality onto

1417-528: A fishy smell due to impurity of dimethylamine . Dimethylamine degradation impurities can be removed by sparging samples with an inert gas such as argon or by sonicating the samples under reduced pressure. As its name indicates, it is structurally related to formamide , having two methyl groups in the place of the two hydrogens. DMF is a polar ( hydrophilic ) aprotic solvent with a high boiling point . It facilitates reactions that follow polar mechanisms, such as S N 2 reactions. As for most amides ,

1526-427: A given diene-dienophile combination. In a more sophisticated treatment, three types of substituents ( Z withdrawing : HOMO and LUMO lowering (CF 3 , NO 2 , CN, C(O)CH 3 ), X donating : HOMO and LUMO raising (Me, OMe, NMe 2 ), C conjugating : HOMO raising and LUMO lowering (Ph, vinyl)) are considered, resulting in a total of 18 possible combinations. The maximization of orbital interaction correctly predicts

1635-565: A hollow sphere with 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces—a design that resembles a football, or soccer ball. In 1996 the trio was awarded the Nobel Prize for their pioneering efforts. The C60 molecule was named buckminsterfullerene (or, more simply, the buckyball) after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic dome is constructed on the same structural principles. Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and

1744-427: A lower p K a on another molecule (intermolecular) or within the same molecule (intramolecular). Any group with a net acidic p K a that gets within range, such as an acyl or carbonyl group is fair game. Since the likelihood of being attacked decreases with an increase in p K a , acyl chloride components with the lowest measured p K a values are most likely to be attacked, followed by carboxylic acids (p K

1853-484: A melting point, boiling point, solubility, and index of refraction. Qualitative properties include odor, consistency, and color. Organic compounds typically melt and many boil. In contrast, while inorganic materials generally can be melted, many do not boil, and instead tend to degrade. In earlier times, the melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.) provided crucial information on the purity and identity of organic compounds. The melting and boiling points correlate with

1962-400: A mixture of dimethylamine hydrochloride and potassium formate . DMF is prepared by combining methyl formate and dimethylamine or by reaction of dimethylamine with carbon monoxide . Although currently impractical, DMF can be prepared from supercritical carbon dioxide using ruthenium -based catalysts. The primary use of DMF is as a solvent with low evaporation rate. DMF is used in

2071-475: A novel compound is a problem-solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate , or as an electrophile ;

2180-534: A reaction known as the oxo-Diels–Alder reaction , and imines can be used, either as the dienophile or at various sites in the diene, to form various N -heterocyclic compounds through the aza-Diels–Alder reaction . Nitroso compounds (R-N=O) can react with dienes to form oxazines . Chlorosulfonyl isocyanate can be utilized as a dienophile to prepare Vince lactam . Lewis acids , such as zinc chloride , boron trifluoride , tin tetrachloride , or aluminium chloride , can catalyze Diels–Alder reactions by binding to

2289-552: A respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention. Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists . Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers , and these include peptides , DNA , RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of peptides and proteins), carbohydrates (which includes

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2398-683: A two-step addition involving an intermediate that collapses to product faster than it can rotate to allow for inversion of stereochemistry. There is a notable rate enhancement when certain Diels–Alder reactions are carried out in polar organic solvents such as dimethylformamide and ethylene glycol , and even in water. The reaction of cyclopentadiene and butenone for example is 700 times faster in water relative to 2,2,4-trimethylpentane as solvent. Several explanations for this effect have been proposed, such as an increase in effective concentration due to hydrophobic packing or hydrogen-bond stabilization of

2507-484: A variety of Lewis acids such as the soft acid I 2 , and the hard acid phenol . It is classified as a hard Lewis base and its ECW model base parameters are E B = 2.19 and C B = 1.31. Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots . DMF was first prepared in 1893 by the French chemist Albert Verley (8 January 1867 – 27 November 1959), by distilling

2616-686: A variety of chemical tests, called "wet methods", but such tests have been largely displaced by spectroscopic or other computer-intensive methods of analysis. Listed in approximate order of utility, the chief analytical methods are: Traditional spectroscopic methods such as infrared spectroscopy , optical rotation , and UV/VIS spectroscopy provide relatively nonspecific structural information but remain in use for specific applications. Refractive index and density can also be important for substance identification. The physical properties of organic compounds typically of interest include both quantitative and qualitative features. Quantitative information includes

2725-514: A wide range of biochemical compounds such as alkaloids , vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA). Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds . The purine nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in several natural products . One important property of carbon

2834-516: Is a precursor to various norbornenes , which are common monomers . The Diels–Alder reaction is also employed in the production of vitamin B6 . The work by Diels and Alder is described in a series of 28 articles published in the Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie and Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft from 1928 to 1937. The first 19 articles were authored by Diels and Alder, while

2943-509: Is a reagent in the Vilsmeier–Haack reaction , which is used to formylate aromatic compounds. The process involves initial conversion of DMF to a chloroiminium ion, [(CH 3 ) 2 N=CH(Cl)] , known as a Vilsmeier reagent , which attacks arenes. Organolithium compounds and Grignard reagents react with DMF to give aldehydes after hydrolysis in a reaction called Bouveault aldehyde synthesis . Dimethylformamide forms 1:1 adducts with

3052-420: Is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular instability ( antiaromaticity ) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons. The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In

3161-431: Is found that Lewis acids accelerate the Diels–Alder reaction by reducing the destabilizing steric Pauli repulsion between the interacting diene and dienophile and not by lowering the energy of the dienophile's LUMO and consequently, enhancing the normal electron demand orbital interaction. The Lewis acid binds via a donor-acceptor interaction to the dienophile and via that mechanism polarizes occupied orbital density away from

3270-530: Is known as Pauli-lowering catalysis , which is operative in a variety of organic reactions. The original rationale behind Lewis acid-catalyzed Diels–Alder reactions is incorrect, because besides lowering the energy of the dienophile's LUMO, the Lewis acid also lowers the energy of the HOMO of the dienophile and hence increases the inverse electron demand LUMO-HOMO orbital energy gap. Thus, indeed Lewis acid catalysts strengthen

3379-423: Is known as the retro-Diels–Alder reaction . The reaction is an example of a concerted pericyclic reaction. It is believed to occur via a single, cyclic transition state, with no intermediates generated during the course of the reaction. As such, the Diels–Alder reaction is governed by orbital symmetry considerations: it is classified as a [ π 4 s + π 2 s ] cycloaddition, indicating that it proceeds through

Diels–Alder reaction - Misplaced Pages Continue

3488-498: Is less reactive because the steric interactions between the substituents destabilize the s- cis conformation. Dienes with bulky terminal substituents (C1 and C4) decrease the rate of reaction, presumably by impeding the approach of the diene and dienophile. An especially reactive diene is 1-methoxy-3-trimethylsiloxy-buta-1,3-diene, otherwise known as Danishefsky's diene . It has particular synthetic utility as means of furnishing α,β–unsaturated cyclohexenone systems by elimination of

3597-480: Is not always clear from a list of reactants alone. The stepwise course of any given reaction mechanism can be represented using arrow pushing techniques in which curved arrows are used to track the movement of electrons as starting materials transition through intermediates to final products. Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering , the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes". Organic synthesis of

3706-499: Is similar to that of water, significant flotation or stratification in surface waters in case of accidental losses is not expected. DMF is hydrolyzed by strong acids and bases, especially at elevated temperatures. With sodium hydroxide , DMF converts to formate and dimethylamine. DMF undergoes decarbonylation near its boiling point to give dimethylamine. Distillation is therefore conducted under reduced pressure at lower temperatures. In one of its main uses in organic synthesis , DMF

3815-444: Is simple and unambiguous. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogen atoms can either be notated explicitly or assumed to be present as implied by tetravalent carbon. By 1880 an explosion in the number of chemical compounds being discovered occurred assisted by new synthetic and analytical techniques. Grignard described the situation as "chaos le plus complet" (complete chaos) due to

3924-432: Is so. (The same conclusion can be drawn from an orbital correlation diagram or a Dewar-Zimmerman analysis.) For the more common "normal" electron demand Diels–Alder reaction, the more important of the two HOMO/LUMO interactions is that between the electron-rich diene's ψ 2 as the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) with the electron-deficient dienophile's π* as the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). However,

4033-451: Is systematically named (6a R ,9 R )- N , N -diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo-[4,3- fg ] quinoline-9-carboxamide. With the increased use of computing, other naming methods have evolved that are intended to be interpreted by machines. Two popular formats are SMILES and InChI . Organic molecules are described more commonly by drawings or structural formulas , combinations of drawings and chemical symbols. The line-angle formula

4142-456: Is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called polymerization , while the chains, or networks, are called polymers . The source compound is called a monomer . Two main groups of polymers exist synthetic polymers and biopolymers . Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as industrial polymers . Biopolymers occur within

4251-407: Is that most Diels–Alder reactions proceed through a concerted mechanism; the issue, however, has been thoroughly contested. Despite the fact that the vast majority of Diels–Alder reactions exhibit stereospecific, syn addition of the two components, a diradical intermediate has been postulated (and supported with computational evidence) on the grounds that the observed stereospecificity does not rule out

4360-413: Is typically taught at the college or university level. It is considered a very challenging course, but has also been made accessible to students. Before the 18th century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds . According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter

4469-442: The chemical formula H C O N (CH 3 ) 2 . Its structure is HC(=O)−N( −CH 3 ) 2 . Commonly abbreviated as DMF (although this initialism is sometimes used for dimethylfuran , or dimethyl fumarate ), this colourless liquid is miscible with water and the majority of organic liquids. DMF is a common solvent for chemical reactions . Dimethylformamide is odorless, but technical-grade or degraded samples often have

Diels–Alder reaction - Misplaced Pages Continue

4578-453: The cis -fused D and E rings was formed by a Diels–Alder reaction. Intramolecular Diels–Alder of the pyranone below with subsequent extrusion of carbon dioxide via a retro [4+2] afforded the bicyclic lactam . Epoxidation from the less hindered α-face, followed by epoxide opening at the less hindered C18 afforded the desired stereochemistry at these positions, while the cis -fusion was achieved with hydrogenation, again proceeding primarily from

4687-435: The cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is benzene , the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure. For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity

4796-420: The electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance . These factors can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates , which usually directly determine the path of the reaction. The basic reaction types are: addition reactions , elimination reactions , substitution reactions , pericyclic reactions , rearrangement reactions and redox reactions . An example of

4905-407: The halogens . Organometallic chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon– metal bonds. In addition, contemporary research focuses on organic chemistry involving other organometallics including the lanthanides , but especially the transition metals zinc, copper, palladium , nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium. Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute

5014-402: The hexadehydro Diels–Alder reaction , alkynes and diynes are used instead of alkenes and dienes, forming an unstable benzyne intermediate which can then be trapped to form an aromatic product. This reaction allows the formation of heavily functionalized aromatic rings in a single step. The retro-Diels–Alder reaction is used in the industrial production of cyclopentadiene . Cyclopentadiene

5123-541: The octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry. Both saturated ( alicyclic ) compounds and unsaturated compounds exist as cyclic derivatives. The most stable rings contain five or six carbon atoms, but large rings (macrocycles) and smaller rings are common. The smallest cycloalkane family is the three-membered cyclopropane ((CH 2 ) 3 ). Saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds only, whereas aromatic rings have an alternating (or conjugated) double bond. Cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whereas

5232-417: The suprafacial /suprafacial interaction of a 4π electron system (the diene structure) with a 2π electron system (the dienophile structure), an interaction that leads to a transition state without an additional orbital symmetry-imposed energetic barrier and allows the Diels–Alder reaction to take place with relative ease. A consideration of the reactants' frontier molecular orbitals (FMO) makes plain why this

5341-403: The 1-methoxy substituent after deprotection of the enol silyl ether. Other synthetically useful derivatives of Danishefsky's diene include 1,3-alkoxy-1-trimethylsiloxy-1,3-butadienes (Brassard dienes) and 1-dialkylamino-3-trimethylsiloxy-1,3-butadienes (Rawal dienes). The increased reactivity of these and similar dienes is a result of synergistic contributions from donor groups at C1 and C3, raising

5450-618: The 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic database . Since organic compounds often exist as mixtures , a variety of techniques have also been developed to assess purity; chromatography techniques are especially important for this application, and include HPLC and gas chromatography . Traditional methods of separation include distillation , crystallization , evaporation , magnetic separation and solvent extraction . Organic compounds were traditionally characterized by

5559-439: The 500 MHz NMR spectrum of this compound shows only one signal for the methyl groups. DMF is miscible with water. The vapour pressure at 20 °C is 3.5 hPa. A Henry's law constant of 7.47 × 10 hPa·m /mol can be deduced from an experimentally determined equilibrium constant at 25 °C. The partition coefficient log  P OW is measured to −0.85. Since the density of DMF (0.95 g·cm at 20 °C )

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5668-464: The Diels–Alder reaction in this instance allowed for the definition of four stereocenters that were carried on to the final product. A Diels–Alder reaction is a key step in the synthesis of (-)-furaquinocin C. Tabersonine was prepared by a Diels–Alder reaction to establish cis relative stereochemistry of the alkaloid core. Conversion of the cis -aldehyde to its corresponding alkene by Wittig olefination and subsequent ring-closing metathesis with

5777-470: The Diels–Alder reaction, the transition state in which the most significant substituent (an electron-withdrawing and/or conjugating group) on the dienophile is oriented towards the diene π system and slips under it as the reaction takes place is known as the endo transition state. In the alternative exo transition state, it is oriented away from it. (There is a more general usage of the terms endo and exo in stereochemical nomenclature.) In cases where

5886-464: The HOMO significantly above that of a comparable monosubstituted diene. Unstable (and thus highly reactive) dienes can be synthetically useful, e.g. o - quinodimethanes can be generated in situ. In contrast, stable dienes, such as naphthalene , require forcing conditions and/or highly reactive dienophiles, such as N -phenylmaleimide . Anthracene , being less aromatic (and therefore more reactive for Diels–Alder syntheses) in its central ring can form

5995-468: The HOMO–LUMO energy gap is close enough that the roles can be reversed by switching electronic effects of the substituents on the two components. In an inverse (reverse) electron-demand Diels–Alder reaction , electron-withdrawing substituents on the diene lower the energy of its empty ψ 3 orbital and electron-donating substituents on the dienophile raise the energy of its filled π orbital sufficiently that

6104-503: The active mechanism behind Lewis acid-catalyzed Diels–Alder reactions. Many methods have been developed for influencing the stereoselectivity of the Diels–Alder reaction, such as the use of chiral auxiliaries, catalysis by chiral Lewis acids , and small organic molecule catalysts . Evans' oxazolidinones , oxazaborolidines , bis -oxazoline –copper chelates , imidazoline catalysis, and many other methodologies exist for effecting diastereo- and enantioselective Diels–Alder reactions. In

6213-491: The asynchronicity of the Diels–Alder reaction, making the occupied π-orbital located on the C=C double bond of the dienophile asymmetric. As a result, this enhanced asynchronicity leads to an extra reduction of the destabilizing steric Pauli repulsion as well as a diminishing pressure on the reactants to deform, in other words, it reduced the destabilizing activation strain (also known as distortion energy). This working catalytic mechanism

6322-433: The canonical mesomeric forms above, it is easy to verify that these results are in accord with expectations based on consideration of electron density and polarization. In general, with respect to the energetically most well-matched HOMO-LUMO pair, maximizing the interaction energy by forming bonds between centers with the largest frontier orbital coefficients allows the prediction of the main regioisomer that will result from

6431-442: The case of furan as diene), steric effects can override the normal endo selectivity in favor of the exo isomer. The diene component of the Diels–Alder reaction can be either open-chain or cyclic, and it can host many different types of substituents. It must, however, be able to exist in the s- cis conformation, since this is the only conformer that can participate in the reaction. Though butadienes are typically more stable in

6540-495: The case of the latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle . Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems. Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and medicines. Additionally, they are prevalent in

6649-473: The combination of the two is called the aldol reaction . Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis . Strategies to design a synthesis include retrosynthesis , popularized by E.J. Corey , which starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or

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6758-431: The conformational stability of the structure of the transition state can be an overwhelming influence. Frontier molecular orbital theory has also been used to explain the regioselectivity patterns observed in Diels–Alder reactions of substituted systems. Calculation of the energy and orbital coefficients of the components' frontier orbitals provides a picture that is in good accord with the more straightforward analysis of

6867-439: The diene and the dienophile are retained in the product, as a syn addition with respect to each component. For example, substituents in a cis ( trans , resp.) relationship on the double bond of the dienophile give rise to substituents that are cis ( trans , resp.) on those same carbons with respect to the cyclohexene ring. Likewise, cis , cis - and trans , trans -disubstituted dienes give cis substituents at these carbons of

6976-400: The dienophile and the diene, an interaction described as a secondary orbital effect , though dipolar and van der Waals attractions may play a part as well, and solvent can sometimes make a substantial difference in selectivity. The secondary orbital overlap explanation was first proposed by Woodward and Hoffmann. In this explanation, the orbitals associated with the group in conjugation with

7085-476: The dienophile double-bond overlap with the interior orbitals of the diene, a situation that is possible only for the endo transition state. Although the original explanation only invoked the orbital on the atom α to the dienophile double bond, Salem and Houk have subsequently proposed that orbitals on the α and β carbons both participate when molecular geometry allows. Often, as with highly substituted dienes, very bulky dienophiles, or reversible reactions (as in

7194-464: The dienophile has a single electron-withdrawing / conjugating substituent, or two electron-withdrawing / conjugating substituents cis to each other, the outcome can often be predicted. In these "normal demand" Diels–Alder scenarios, the endo transition state is typically preferred, despite often being more sterically congested. This preference is known as the Alder endo rule . As originally stated by Alder,

7303-454: The dienophile with an electron withdrawing group (EWG) at C1 has the largest LUMO coefficient at C2. Pairing these two coefficients gives the "ortho" product as seen in case 1 in the figure below. A diene substituted at C2 as in case 2 below has the largest HOMO coefficient at C1, giving rise to the "para" product. Similar analyses for the corresponding inverse-demand scenarios gives rise to the analogous products as seen in cases 3 and 4. Examining

7412-458: The dienophile. Traditionally, the enhanced Diels-Alder reactivity is ascribed to the ability of the Lewis acid to lower the LUMO of the activated dienophile, which results in a smaller normal electron demand HOMO-LUMO orbital energy gap and hence more stabilizing orbital interactions. Recent studies, however, have shown that this rationale behind Lewis acid-catalyzed Diels–Alder reactions is incorrect. It

7521-480: The early part of the 20th century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin. The multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol . For example, cholesterol -related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since

7630-429: The first effective medicinal treatment of syphilis , and thereby initiated the medical practice of chemotherapy . Ehrlich popularized the concepts of "magic bullet" drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies. His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums. Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of

7739-406: The formation of six-membered rings in terms of scope or versatility. Because of the negative values of Δ H ° and Δ S ° for a typical Diels–Alder reaction, the microscopic reverse of a Diels–Alder reaction becomes favorable at high temperatures, although this is of synthetic importance for only a limited range of Diels–Alder adducts, generally with some special structural features; this reverse reaction

7848-422: The fossilization of living beings, i.e., biomolecules. See also: peptide synthesis , oligonucleotide synthesis and carbohydrate synthesis . In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is small molecules , also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule is a small organic compound that is biologically active but is not a polymer . In practice, small molecules have

7957-437: The functional group have an intermolecular and intramolecular effect on the surrounding environment and pH level. Different functional groups have different p K a values and bond strengths (single, double, triple) leading to increased electrophilicity with lower p K a and increased nucleophile strength with higher p K a . More basic/nucleophilic functional groups desire to attack an electrophilic functional group with

8066-494: The halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as organosulfur chemistry , organometallic chemistry , organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry . Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds . Many of these reactions are associated with functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as

8175-430: The interaction between these two orbitals becomes the most energetically significant stabilizing orbital interaction. Regardless of which situation pertains, the HOMO and LUMO of the components are in phase and a bonding interaction results as can be seen in the diagram below. Since the reactants are in their ground state, the reaction is initiated thermally and does not require activation by light. The "prevailing opinion"

8284-432: The introduction of chemical complexity in the synthesis of natural products and new materials. The underlying concept has also been applied to π-systems involving heteroatoms , such as carbonyls and imines , which furnish the corresponding heterocycles ; this variant is known as the hetero-Diels–Alder reaction . The reaction has also been generalized to other ring sizes, although none of these generalizations have matched

8393-447: The lack of convention it was possible to have multiple names for the same compound. This led to the creation of the Geneva rules in 1892. The concept of functional groups is central in organic chemistry, both as a means to classify structures and for predicting properties. A functional group is a molecular module, and the reactivity of that functional group is assumed, within limits, to be

8502-442: The later articles were authored by Diels and various other coauthors. The Diels–Alder reaction was one step in an early preparation of the steroids cortisone and cholesterol . The reaction involved the addition of butadiene to a quinone. Diels–Alder reactions were used in the original synthesis of prostaglandins F2α and E2 . The Diels–Alder reaction establishes the relative stereochemistry of three contiguous stereocenters on

8611-425: The less hindered face. A pyranone was similarly used as the dienophile in the total synthesis of taxol . The intermolecular reaction of the hydroxy-pyrone and α,β–unsaturated ester shown below suffered from poor yield and regioselectivity; however, when directed by phenylboronic acid the desired adduct could be obtained in 61% yield after cleavage of the boronate with neopentyl glycol . The stereospecificity of

8720-710: The majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with its valence of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus structures with delocalized electrons —make the array of organic compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications enormous. They form the basis of, or are constituents of, many commercial products including pharmaceuticals ; petrochemicals and agrichemicals , and products made from them including lubricants , solvents ; plastics ; fuels and explosives . The study of organic chemistry overlaps organometallic chemistry and biochemistry , but also with medicinal chemistry , polymer chemistry , and materials science . Organic chemistry

8829-562: The molecule more acidic or basic due to their electronic influence on surrounding parts of the molecule. As the p K a (aka basicity ) of the molecular addition/functional group increases, there is a corresponding dipole , when measured, increases in strength. A dipole directed towards the functional group (higher p K a therefore basic nature of group) points towards it and decreases in strength with increasing distance. Dipole distance (measured in Angstroms ) and steric hindrance towards

8938-412: The molecule of interest. This parent name is then modified by prefixes, suffixes, and numbers to unambiguously convey the structure. Given that millions of organic compounds are known, rigorous use of systematic names can be cumbersome. Thus, IUPAC recommendations are more closely followed for simple compounds, but not complex molecules. To use the systematic naming, one must know the structures and names of

9047-425: The normal electron demand orbital interaction by lowering the LUMO of the dienophile, but, they simultaneously weaken the inverse electron demand orbital interaction by also lowering the energy of the dienophile's HOMO. These two counteracting phenomena effectively cancel each other, resulting in nearly unchanged orbital interactions when compared to the corresponding uncatalyzed Diels–Alder reactions and making this not

9156-437: The organic dye now known as Perkin's mauve . His discovery, made widely known through its financial success, greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently in 1858 by both Friedrich August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper . Both researchers suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form

9265-464: The organic solute and with the organic solvent. Various specialized properties of molecular crystals and organic polymers with conjugated systems are of interest depending on applications, e.g. thermo-mechanical and electro-mechanical such as piezoelectricity , electrical conductivity (see conductive polymers and organic semiconductors ), and electro-optical (e.g. non-linear optics ) properties. For historical reasons, such properties are mainly

9374-422: The parent structures. Parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons, heterocycles, and mono functionalized derivatives thereof. Nonsystematic nomenclature is simpler and unambiguous, at least to organic chemists. Nonsystematic names do not indicate the structure of the compound. They are common for complex molecules, which include most natural products. Thus, the informally named lysergic acid diethylamide

9483-769: The polarity of the molecules and their molecular weight. Some organic compounds, especially symmetrical ones, sublime . A well-known example of a sublimable organic compound is para-dichlorobenzene , the odiferous constituent of modern mothballs. Organic compounds are usually not very stable at temperatures above 300 °C, although some exceptions exist. Neutral organic compounds tend to be hydrophobic ; that is, they are less soluble in water than inorganic solvents. Exceptions include organic compounds that contain ionizable groups as well as low molecular weight alcohols , amines , and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Otherwise, organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents . Solubility varies widely with

9592-520: The polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids . Besides, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle , and produces isoprene , the most common hydrocarbon in animals. Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural ( cholesterol ) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form terpenes , terpenoids , some alkaloids , and

9701-433: The predefined stereochemistry of the propargylic alcohol. In this way, the single allene isomer formed could direct the Diels–Alder reaction to occur on only one face of the generated 'diene'. The tetracyclic core of the antibiotic (-)-tetracycline was prepared with a Diels–Alder reaction. Thermally initiated, conrotatory opening of the benzocyclobutene generated the o -quinodimethane, which reacted intermolecularly to give

9810-492: The product in all cases for which experimental data is available. For instance, in uncommon combinations involving X groups on both diene and dienophile, a 1,3-substitution pattern may be favored, an outcome not accounted for by a simplistic resonance structure argument. However, cases where the resonance argument and the matching of largest orbital coefficients disagree are rare. Diels–Alder reactions, as concerted cycloadditions, are stereospecific . Stereochemical information of

9919-925: The product molecule. This is a "masked functionality" which can be then hydrolyzed to form a ketone . α-Chloroacrylonitrile dienophile is an equivalent of ketene dienophile (CH 2 =C=O), which would produce same product in one DA step. The problem is that ketene itself cannot be used in Diels–Alder reactions because it reacts with dienes in unwanted manner (by [2+2] cycloaddition), and therefore "masked functionality" approach has to be used. Other such functionalities are phosphonium substituents (yielding exocyclic double bonds after Wittig reaction ), various sulfoxide and sulfonyl functionalities (both are acetylene equivalents), and nitro groups (ketene equivalents). Diels–Alder reactions involving at least one heteroatom are also known and are collectively called hetero-Diels–Alder reactions. Carbonyl groups , for example, can successfully react with dienes to yield dihydropyran rings,

10028-408: The product whereas cis , trans -disubstituted dienes give trans substituents: Diels–Alder reactions in which adjacent stereocenters are generated at the two ends of the newly formed single bonds imply two different possible stereochemical outcomes. This is a stereoselective situation based on the relative orientation of the two separate components when they react with each other. In the context of

10137-475: The production of acrylic fibers and plastics . It is also used as a solvent in peptide coupling for pharmaceuticals, in the development and production of pesticides , and in the manufacture of adhesives , synthetic leathers , fibers, films, and surface coatings. As a cheap and common reagent, DMF has many uses in a research laboratory. Dimethylformamide vapor exposure has shown reduced alcohol tolerance and skin irritation in some cases. On 20 June 2018,

10246-403: The proposed precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed because each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses. Dimethylformamide Dimethylformamide , DMF is an organic compound with

10355-412: The prostaglandin cyclopentane core. Activation by Lewis acidic cupric tetrafluoroborate was required. A Diels–Alder reaction was used in the synthesis of disodium prephenate , a biosynthetic precursor of the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine . A synthesis of reserpine uses a Diels–Alder reaction to set the cis -decalin framework of the D and E rings. In another synthesis of reserpine,

10464-411: The reactive C=C double bond of the dienophile towards the Lewis acid. This reduced occupied orbital density on C=C double bond of the dienophile will, in turn, engage in a less repulsive closed-shell-closed-shell orbital interaction with the incoming diene, reducing the destabilizing steric Pauli repulsion and hence lowers the Diels–Alder reaction barrier. In addition, the Lewis acid catalyst also increases

10573-468: The s- trans conformation, for most cases energy difference is small (~2–5 kcal/mol). A bulky substituent at the C2 or C3 position can increase reaction rate by destabilizing the s- trans conformation and forcing the diene into the reactive s- cis conformation. 2- tert -butyl-buta-1,3-diene, for example, is 27 times more reactive than simple butadiene. Conversely, a diene having bulky substituents at both C2 and C3

10682-589: The same in a variety of molecules. Functional groups can have a decisive influence on the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds. Molecules are classified based on their functional groups. Alcohols, for example, all have the subunit C-O-H. All alcohols tend to be somewhat hydrophilic , usually form esters , and usually can be converted to the corresponding halides . Most functional groups feature heteroatoms (atoms other than C and H). Organic compounds are classified according to functional groups, alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, etc. Functional groups make

10791-492: The spectroscopic evidence indicates partial double bond character for the C−N and C−O bonds. Thus, the infrared spectrum shows a C=O stretching frequency at only 1675 cm , whereas a ketone would absorb near 1700 cm . DMF is a classic example of a fluxional molecule . The ambient temperature H NMR spectrum shows two methyl signals, indicative of hindered rotation about the (O)C−N bond. At temperatures near 100 °C,

10900-430: The start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B 12 . The discovery of petroleum and the development of the petrochemical industry spurred the development of organic chemistry. Converting individual petroleum compounds into types of compounds by various chemical processes led to organic reactions enabling

11009-415: The subjects of the areas of polymer science and materials science . The names of organic compounds are either systematic, following logically from a set of rules, or nonsystematic, following various traditions. Systematic nomenclature is stipulated by specifications from IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). Systematic nomenclature starts with the name for a parent structure within

11118-493: The substituents' resonance effects, as illustrated below. In general, the regioselectivity found for both normal and inverse electron-demand Diels–Alder reaction follows the ortho-para rule , so named, because the cyclohexene product bears substituents in positions that are analogous to the ortho and para positions of disubstituted arenes. For example, in a normal-demand scenario, a diene bearing an electron-donating group (EDG) at C1 has its largest HOMO coefficient at C4, while

11227-713: The tetracycline skeleton. The dienophile's free hydroxyl group is integral to the success of the reaction, as hydroxyl-protected variants did not react under several different reaction conditions. Takemura et al. synthesized cantharidin in 1980 by Diels–Alder reaction, utilizing high pressure. Synthetic applications of the Diels–Alder reaction have been reviewed extensively. Organic chemistry The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry includes hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen ) as well as compounds based on carbon, but also containing other elements, especially oxygen , nitrogen , sulfur , phosphorus (included in many biochemicals ) and

11336-412: The transition state that is preferred is the one with a "maximum accumulation of double bonds." Endo selectivity is typically higher for rigid dienophiles such as maleic anhydride and benzoquinone ; for others, such as acrylates and crotonates , selectivity is not very pronounced. The most widely accepted explanation for the origin of this effect is a favorable interaction between the π systems of

11445-402: The transition state. The geometry of the diene and dienophile components each propagate into stereochemical details of the product. For intermolecular reactions especially, the preferred positional and stereochemical relationship of substituents of the two components compared to each other are controlled by electronic effects. However, for intramolecular Diels–Alder cycloaddition reactions,

11554-509: Was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism. After Wöhler, Justus von Liebig worked on the organization of organic chemistry, being considered one of its principal founders. In 1856, William Henry Perkin , while trying to manufacture quinine , accidentally produced

11663-403: Was endowed with a "vital force". During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis . He separated the acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it

11772-539: Was first described by Otto Diels and Kurt Alder in 1928. For the discovery of this reaction, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1950. Through the simultaneous construction of two new carbon–carbon bonds, the Diels–Alder reaction provides a reliable way to form six-membered rings with good control over the regio- and stereochemical outcomes. Consequently, it has served as a powerful and widely applied tool for

11881-467: Was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine , from inorganic starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate ), in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis . Although Wöhler himself

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