List of forms of government
61-515: In political science , despotism ( Greek : Δεσποτισμός , romanized : despotismós ) is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power . Normally, that entity is an individual, the despot (as in an autocracy ), but societies which limit respect and power to specific groups have also been called despotic. Colloquially, the word despot applies pejoratively to those who use their power and authority to oppress their populace or subordinates. More specifically,
122-436: A Marvellous Party " ("If you have any mind at all, / Gibbon's divine Decline and Fall , / Seems pretty flimsy, / No more than a whimsy...") and Isaac Asimov 's " The Foundation of S.F. Success ", in which Asimov admits his Foundation series (about the fall and rebuilding of a galactic empire) was written " with a tiny bit of cribbin' / from the works of Edward Gibbon ". Piers Brendon , who wrote The Decline and Fall of
183-399: A common publishing practice of the time. Gibbon's initial plan was to write a history " of the decline and fall of the city of Rome ", and only later expanded his scope to the whole Roman Empire. Although he published other books, Gibbon devoted much of his life to this one work (1772–1789). His autobiography Memoirs of My Life and Writings is devoted largely to his reflections on how
244-431: A despot governs by their own will and caprice. Political science Political science is the scientific study of politics . It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior , and associated constitutions and laws . Political science is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and
305-446: A distinct field from history. The term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including moral philosophy, political economy, political theology , history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state. Generally, classical political philosophy
366-416: A highly developed set of psychological mechanisms for dealing with politics. However, these mechanisms evolved for dealing with the small group politics that characterized the ancestral environment and not the much larger political structures in today's world. This is argued to explain many important features and systematic cognitive biases of current politics. Political science is a social study concerning
427-480: A host of political systems and situations. Other approaches include the study of equation-based models and opinion dynamics. Political theorists approach theories of political phenomena with a similar diversity of positions and tools, including feminist political theory , historical analysis associated with the Cambridge school , and Straussian approaches . Political science may overlap with topics of study that are
488-502: A master who ruled in a household over those who were slaves or servants by nature. The term has been used to describe many rulers and governments throughout history. It connoted the absolute authority and power exercised by the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, signified nobility in Byzantine courts, designated the rulers of Byzantine vassal states, and acted as a title for Byzantine emperors . In this and other Greek or Greek influenced contexts,
549-446: A separate constituent college or academic department, then political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of humanities or liberal arts . At some universities, especially research universities and in particular those that have a strong cooperation between research, undergraduate, and graduate faculty with a stronger more applied emphasis in public administration, political science would be taught by
610-614: A sigh, that, after having long experienced the stern tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled beneath the effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. ( The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , Book One, Chapter Six) Yet although the word has a pejorative meaning nowadays, it was once a legitimate title of office in the Byzantine Empire , first used under Manuel I Komnenos (1143–1180) who created it for his appointed heir Alexius-Béla , according to Gyula Moravcsik as
671-413: A study of human behavior , in all aspects of politics , observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science ). Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics
SECTION 10
#1732848216228732-553: A translation of Béla's Hungarian title úr . It was typically bestowed on sons-in-law and later sons of the Emperor and, beginning in the 13th century, it was bestowed to foreign princes. The Despot wore elaborate costumes similar to the Emperor's and had many privileges. Despots ruled over parts of the empire called Despotates. In the Orthodox Liturgy , if celebrated in Greek , the bishop
793-472: A variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations . Private enterprises such as think tanks , research institutes, polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists. Political scientists may study political phenomena within one specific country. For example, they may study just the politics of the United States or just
854-412: Is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research , political philosophy, and many others, in addition to those that developed chiefly within the field of political science. Political scientists approach the study of politics from a host of different ontological orientations and with a variety of different tools. Because political science is essentially
915-416: Is a defining feature of contemporary political science. Empirical political science methods include the use of field experiments, surveys and survey experiments, case studies, process tracing, historical and institutional analysis, ethnography, participant observation, and interview research. Political scientists also use and develop theoretical tools like game theory and agent-based models to study
976-478: Is addressed by the deacon as Despota even today. The modern term seems to have been coined by the opponents of Louis XIV of France in the 1690s, who applied the term despotisme to describe their monarch's somewhat free exercise of power, but the Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu believed that while republics were suitable for small states and monarchies were ideal for moderate-sized states, despotism
1037-409: Is an observational, not an experimental science." Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behaviour in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics. Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have
1098-451: Is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought, political scientists are also marked by a great concern for " modernity " and the contemporary nation state , along with the study of classical thought, and as such share more terminology with sociologists (e.g., structure and agency ). The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with
1159-956: The Byzantine Empire flawed, and blamed him somewhat for the lack of interest shown in the subject throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. Gibbon prefaced subsequent editions to note that discussion of Byzantium was not his interest in writing the book. However, the Yugoslavian historian George Ostrogorsky wrote, "Gibbon and Lebeau were genuine historians – and Gibbon a very great one – and their works, in spite of factual inadequacy, rank high for their presentation of their material." Gibbon challenged Church history by estimating far smaller numbers of Christian martyrs than had been traditionally accepted. The Church's version of its early history had rarely been questioned before. Gibbon, however, said that modern Church writings were secondary sources , and he shunned them in favour of primary sources . Historian S. P. Foster says that Gibbon "blamed
1220-483: The Perestroika Movement in political science was introduced as a reaction against what supporters of the movement called the mathematicization of political science. Those who identified with the movement argued for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in political science and for more relevance of the discipline to those outside of it. Some evolutionary psychology theories argue that humans have evolved
1281-404: The fall of the Roman Empire , a task made difficult by a lack of comprehensive written sources. According to Gibbon, the Roman Empire succumbed to barbarian invasions in large part due to the gradual loss of civic virtue among its citizens. He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to attacks from outside
SECTION 20
#17328482162281342-720: The peak of the Roman Empire , the history of early Christianity and its emergence as the Roman state religion , the Fall of the Western Roman Empire , the rise of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane and the fall of Byzantium , as well as discussions on the ruins of Ancient Rome. Volume I was published in 1776 and went through six printings. Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, and VI in 1788–1789. The original volumes were published in quarto sections,
1403-423: The politics of China . Political scientists look at a variety of data, including constitutions, elections , public opinion , and public policy , foreign policy , legislatures, and judiciaries. Political scientists will often focus on the politics of their own country; for example, a political scientist from Indonesia may become an expert in the politics of Indonesia. The theory of political transitions, and
1464-462: The British Empire, 1781–1997 , claimed that Gibbon's work "became the essential guide for Britons anxious to plot their own imperial trajectory. They found the key to understanding the British Empire in the ruins of Rome." In 1995, an established journal of classical scholarship, Classics Ireland , published punk musician Iggy Pop 's reflections on the applicability of The Decline and Fall of
1525-452: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Edward Gibbon's central thesis in his explanation of how the Roman Empire fell, that it was due to embracing Christianity, is not widely accepted by scholars today. Gibbon argued that with the empire's new Christian character, large sums of wealth that would have otherwise been used in secular affairs in promoting the state were transferred to promoting
1586-535: The Empire . Like other Enlightenment thinkers and British citizens of the age steeped in institutional anti-Catholicism , Gibbon held in contempt the Middle Ages as a priest-ridden, superstitious Dark Age. It was not until his own era, the "Age of Reason", with its emphasis on rational thought, he believed, that human history could resume its progress. Gibbon's tone was detached, dispassionate, and yet critical. He
1647-478: The Laws in the 18th century. The idea was not new or unique to Montesquieu 's work, but Montesquieu's work is widely regarded as having been the most influential on modern political thought. Later political thinkers such as François Quesnay and Simon-Nicholas Henri Linguet embraced the idea of oriental despotism in attempt to convince that a despot who is not dependent on the aristocracy has an interest to work more for
1708-525: The United States Congress, as well as political behavior, such as voting. William H. Riker and his colleagues and students at the University of Rochester were the main proponents of this shift. Despite considerable research progress in the discipline based on all types of scholarship discussed above, scholars have noted that progress toward systematic theory has been modest and uneven. In 2000,
1769-540: The United States is Pi Sigma Alpha , while Pi Alpha Alpha is a national honor society specifically designated for public administration . The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , sometimes shortened to Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , is a six-volume work by the English historian Edward Gibbon . The six volumes cover, from 98 to 1590,
1830-485: The United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of political studies or politics in general. While political science implies the use of the scientific method , political studies implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content. Separate, specialized or, in some cases, professional degree programs in international relations , public policy , and public administration are common at both
1891-505: The activities of the Church. However, the pre-Christian empire also spent large financial sums on religion and it is unclear whether or not the change of religion increased the amount of resources the empire spent on it. Gibbon further argued that new attitudes in Christianity caused many Christians of wealth to renounce their lifestyles and enter a monastic lifestyle, and so stop participating in
Despotism - Misplaced Pages Continue
1952-922: The allocation and transfer of power in decision making , the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations , political behaviour, and public policies . It measures the success of governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability , justice , material wealth , peace , and public health . Some political scientists seek to advance positive theses (which attempt to describe how things are, as opposed to how they should be) by analysing politics; others advance normative theses, such as by making specific policy recommendations. The study of politics and policies can be closely connected—for example, in comparative analyses of which types of political institutions tend to produce certain types of policies. Political science provides analysis and predictions about political and governmental issues. Political scientists examine
2013-413: The analysis of political activities, political institutions, political thought and behavior, and associated constitutions and laws . As a social science, contemporary political science started to take shape in the latter half of the 19th century and began to separate itself from political philosophy and history. Into the late 19th century, it was still uncommon for political science to be considered
2074-579: The book virtually became his life. He compared the publication of each succeeding volume to a newborn child. As for sources more recent than the ancients, Gibbon drew on Montesquieu 's Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline (1734), Voltaire 's Essay on Universal History (1756), and Bossuet 's Discourse on Universal History (1681). Gibbon offers an explanation for
2135-406: The capacity for making conscious choices, unlike other subjects, such as non-human organisms in biology , minerals in geoscience , chemical elements in chemistry , stars in astronomy , or particles in physics . Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics, and methodological pluralism
2196-655: The capital. A faithful picture, however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by his immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate-house, conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his person and manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk and gold, after the loose flowing fashion of the Medes and Phoenicians; his head was covered with a lofty tiara, his numerous collars and bracelets were adorned with gems of an inestimable value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks painted with an artificial red and white. The grave senators confessed with
2257-428: The collaboration between sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and public opinion scholar Bernard Berelson . The late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed a takeoff in the use of deductive, game-theoretic formal modelling techniques aimed at generating a more analytical corpus of knowledge in the discipline. This period saw a surge of research that borrowed theory and methods from economics to study political institutions, such as
2318-609: The discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The American Political Science Association and the American Political Science Review were founded in 1903 and 1906, respectively, in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena. APSA membership rose from 204 in 1904 to 1,462 in 1915. APSA members played a key role in setting up political science departments that were distinct from history, philosophy, law, sociology, and economics. The journal Political Science Quarterly
2379-438: The increasing use of Oriental-style despotism by the Roman emperors was a major factor in the fall of the Roman Empire , particularly from the reign of Elagabalus : As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most trifling amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious progress from Syria to Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first winter after his victory, and deferred till the ensuing summer his triumphal entry into
2440-465: The methods of analyzing and anticipating crises, form an important part of political science. Several general indicators of crises and methods were proposed for anticipating critical transitions. Among them, one statistical indicator of crisis, a simultaneous increase of variance and correlations in large groups, was proposed for crisis anticipation and may be successfully used in various areas. Its applicability for early diagnosis of political crises
2501-415: The otherworldly preoccupations of Christianity for the decline of the Roman empire, heaped scorn and abuse on the church, and sneered at the entirety of monasticism as a dreary, superstition-ridden enterprise". Gibbon's work was originally published in sections, as was common for large works at the time. The first two volumes were well-received and widely praised, but with the publication of volume 3, Gibbon
Despotism - Misplaced Pages Continue
2562-543: The people than a monarch in the European political system. In its classical form, despotism is a state in which a single individual (the despot ) holds all the power and authority embodying the state, and everyone else is a subsidiary person . This form of despotism was common in the first forms of statehood and civilization ; the Pharaoh of Egypt is an exemplary figure of the classical despot. Edward Gibbon suggested that
2623-644: The processes, systems and political dynamics of countries and regions of the world, often to raise public awareness or to influence specific governments. Political scientists may provide the frameworks from which journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. According to Chaturvedy, Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties, or as civil servants. They may be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In
2684-416: The same Object, evinc[ing] a design to reduce [the people] under absolute Despotism". Nowadays, "despotism" can refer to any absolutist or dictatorial regime or leader that uses their power in a cruel manner. According to Montesquieu , the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is that in the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas
2745-664: The series title (including using "Rise and Fall" in place of "Decline and Fall"), especially when dealing with a large polity that has imperial characteristics. Notable examples include Jefferson Davis' The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government , William Shirer's The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich , and David Bowie's The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . The title and author have also been referenced in poems such as Noël Coward 's " I Went to
2806-425: The social sciences as a whole, can be described "as a discipline which lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities ." Thus, in most American colleges, especially liberal arts colleges , it would be located within the school or college of arts and sciences . If no separate college of arts and sciences exists, or if the college or university prefers that it be in
2867-421: The study of culture in anthropology. In turn, methodologies that are developed within political science may influence how researchers in other fields, like public health, conceive of and approach political processes and policies. The most common piece of academic writing in generalist political sciences is the research paper, which investigates an original research question . Political science, possibly like
2928-519: The support of the empire. However, while many Christians of wealth did become monastics, this paled in comparison to the participants in the imperial bureaucracy. Although Gibbon further pointed out that the importance Christianity placed on peace caused a decline in the number of people serving the military, the decline was so small as to be negligible for the army's effectiveness. John Julius Norwich , despite his admiration for Gibbon's furthering of historical methodology, considered his hostile views on
2989-413: The term often applies to a head of state or government . In this sense, it is similar to the pejorative connotations that are associated with the terms tyrant and dictator . Despot has also been a royal title assumed by various leaders historically. The root despot comes from the Greek word despotes , which means "one with power." In ancient Greek usage, a despótès was technically
3050-548: The term was used as an honorific rather than as a pejorative. Due to its reflexive connotation throughout history, the word despot cannot be objectively defined. While despot is closely related to other Greek words like basileus and autokrator , these connotations have also been used to describe a variety of rulers and governments throughout history, such as local chieftains, kings, and emperors. The concept of despotism, and especially oriental despotism, entered European political thought with Montesquieu's The Spirit of
3111-418: The title of political science arising in the late 19th century. The designation "political scientist" is commonly used to denote someone with a doctorate or master's degree in the field. Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive political science, with each part of
SECTION 50
#17328482162283172-514: The traditional focuses of other social sciences—for example, when sociological norms or psychological biases are connected to political phenomena. In these cases, political science may either inherit their methods of study or develop a contrasting approach. For example, Lisa Wedeen has argued that political science's approach to the idea of culture, originating with Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba and exemplified by authors like Samuel P. Huntington , could benefit from aligning more closely with
3233-602: The undergraduate and postgraduate levels, although most but not all undergraduate level education in these sub-fields of political science is generally found in academic concentrations within a political science academic major . Master's-level programs in public administration are professional degrees covering public policy along with other applied subjects; they are often seen as more linked to politics than any other discipline, which may be reflected by being housed in that department. The main national honor society for college and university students of government and politics in
3294-458: The university's public policy school . Most United States colleges and universities offer BA programs in political science. MA or MAT and PhD or EdD programs are common at larger universities. The term political science is more popular in post-1960s North America than elsewhere while universities predating the 1960s or those historically influenced by them would call the field of study government ; other institutions, especially those outside
3355-416: Was also developed. The study of major crises, both political crises and external crises that can affect politics, is not limited to attempts to predict regime transitions or major changes in political institutions. Political scientists also study how governments handle unexpected disasters, and how voters in democracies react to their governments' preparations for and responses to crises. Political science
3416-503: Was an appropriate government for large states. In enlightened absolutism (also known as benevolent despotism), which came to prominence in 18th century Europe, absolute monarchs used their authority to institute a number of reforms in the political systems and societies of their countries. At the same time, the term was used to imply tyrannical rule. The United States Declaration of Independence accused King George III of "a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably
3477-458: Was attacked by some as a " paganist " because he argued that Christianity (or at least the abuse of it by some of the clergy and its followers) had hastened the fall of the Roman Empire. Voltaire was deemed to have influenced Gibbon's claim that Christianity was a contributor to the fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon has been criticized for his portrayal of Paganism as tolerant and Christianity as intolerant. Many writers have used variations on
3538-525: Was demonstrated by the analysis of the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years. A feature shared by certain major revolutions is that they were not predicted. The theory of apparent inevitability of crises and revolutions
3599-576: Was established in 1886 by the Academy of Political Science. In the inaugural issue of Political Science Quarterly , Munroe Smith defined political science as "the science of the state. Taken in this sense, it includes the organization and functions of the state, and the relation of states one to another." As part of a UNESCO initiative to promote political science in the late 1940s, the International Political Science Association
3660-539: Was founded in 1949, as well as national associations in France in 1949, Britain in 1950, and West Germany in 1951. In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behavior swept the discipline. A focus on studying political behavior, rather than institutions or interpretation of legal texts, characterized early behavioral political science, including work by Robert Dahl , Philip Converse , and in
3721-451: Was noted as occasionally lapsing into moralisation and aphorism . Gibbon continued to revise and change his work even after publication. The complexities of the problem are addressed in Womersley's introduction and appendices to his complete edition. Numerous tracts were published criticising his work. In response, Gibbon defended his work with the 1779 publication of A Vindication ... of
SECTION 60
#1732848216228#227772