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58-712: The Empire of Great Fulo ( Fula : Deeniyankobe ; French : Grand Fulo ), also known as the Denanke Kingdom or Denianke Kingdom , was a Pulaar kingdom of Senegal , which dominated the Futa Toro region from the early 16th century to 1776. Tenguella , a Fula chief in Futa Toro, led an emigration in the 1450s to establish the Futa Kingi state. His actions disrupted trade, which threatened Mali 's communication lines, and led to conflict with Songhai . In 1512, Amar Konjago of
116-608: A Jihad to drive the French back across the Senegal River. In 1908 Colonel Gouraud, who had defeated a Tuareg resistance movement in the French Sudan (present day Mali ), took command of French forces as the government Commissioner of the new Civil Territory of Mauritania (created in 1904). He captured Atar , and received the submission of all the Adrar peoples the following year. By 1912,
174-521: A brother of Askia Mohammad I , in 1512 defeated and killed Tenguella in battle and destroyed his young state. Koli Tenguella led another armed migration north from his base in Futa Jallon, attacking many small states on his path. After re-establishing his family's rule in Futa Toro, he redirected the fledgling state's military away from Songhai towards the Jolof Empire with great success. The growth of
232-490: A campaign to counteract the influence of his two rivals—the southern marabouts, Shaykhs Sidiya and Saad—and to stop the advance of the French. Because Shaykh Ma al Aynin enjoyed military as well as moral support from Morocco, the French policy of peaceful pacification gave way to active conquest. In return for support, Shaykh Ma al Aynin recognized the Moroccan sultan's claims to sovereignty over Mauritania. This action has since been
290-444: A climax under Louis Faidherbe . "The Plan of 1854" was a series of interior ministerial orders given to Governor Protet; it was developed after petitions from the powerful Bordeaux -based Maurel and Prom company , the largest shipping interest in St. Louis . It required the construction of forts upriver in order to command more territory and end African control of the acacia gum trade from
348-519: A constutitional council, ensuring the smooth transition of power to the most competent candidates. Another batu was a sort of cabinet composed of members of the royal household, who each held specific dossiers such as tax collection and management of the royal estate. The heir presumptive or kamalenku , for example, administered the right bank of the Senegal, including the Moors who lived there. Royal control
406-455: A few slaves for domestic use. Nomadic societies have less use of slave labor than do sedentary societies. In some cases, the bidan used slaves to work on oasis plantations: farming dates , digging wells , etc. These interrelated tribes controlled distinct territories: the Emirates of Trarza, Brakna , and Tagant were the political reflection of Hassane-caste tribes in southern Mauritania. At
464-496: A large expeditionary force that crushed Muhammad's army. As a result, the French expanded their influence to the north of the Senegal River. In the 1840s and 1850s, the French in Saint-Louis implemented expansion along the Senegal river valley by building fortified trading posts and militarily enforcing protectorate treaties with the smaller states in the territory of today's Senegal . Governor Protet began this policy, but it reached
522-427: A local language in many African countries, such as Mauritania , Guinea-Bissau , Sierra Leone , Togo , CAR , Chad , Sudan , Ethiopia and Somalia , numbering more than 95 million speakers in total. The two sounds / c / and / ɟ / , may be realized as affricate sounds [ tʃ ] and [ dʒ ] . Short / i e o u / vowel sounds can also be realized as [ ɪ ɛ ɔ ʊ ]. There were unsuccessful efforts in
580-484: A nominative case (i.e., used as verb subject) and an accusative or dative case (i.e., used as a verb object) as well as a possessive form. Relative pronouns generally take the same form as the nominative. While there are numerous varieties of Fula, it is typically regarded as a single language. Wilson (1989) states that "travelers over wide distances never find communication impossible," and Ka (1991) concludes that despite its geographic span and dialect variation, Fulfulde
638-673: A noun with its class marker. Classes 1 and 2 can be described as personal classes, classes 3-6 as diminutive classes, classes 7-8 as augmentative classes, and classes 9-25 as neutral classes. It is formed on the basis of McIntosh's 1984 description of Kaceccereere Fulfulde, which the author describes as "essentially the same" as David Arnott 's 1970 description of the noun classes of the Gombe dialect of Fula. Thus, certain examples from Arnott also informed this table. Verbs in Fula are usually classed in three voices : active, middle, and passive. Not every root
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#1733115540731696-700: A society divided according to ethnicity and caste. The "warrior" lineages or clans , the Hassane , supposed descendants of the Beni Hassan Arab conquerors (cf. Oulad Delim ) maintained supremacy and comprised the aristocratic upper ranks. Below them were ranked the "scholarly" or "clerical" lineages, who preserved and taught Islam. These were called marabout (by the French) or zawiya tribes (cf. Oulad Tidrarine ). The zawiya tribes were protected by Hassane overlords in exchange for their religious services and payment of
754-493: A term of obscure origin, has a different meaning in the Berber regions of Morocco.) The Haratin often lived serving affiliated bidan (white) families; in this role, they were considered part of the bidan tribe, and not having tribes of their own. Below them were enslaved persons. These were owned individually or in family groups. At most they could hope to be freed and rise to the status of Haratin. Rich bidan families generally held
812-635: Is a Senegambian language spoken by around 36.8 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stretches across some 18 countries in West and Central Africa . Along with other related languages such as Serer and Wolof , it belongs to the Atlantic geographic group within Niger–Congo , and more specifically to the Senegambian branch. Unlike most Niger-Congo languages, Fula does not have tones . It
870-493: Is based on verbonominal roots, from which verbal, noun, and modifier words are derived. It uses suffixes (sometimes inaccurately called infixes , as they come between the root and the inflectional ending) to modify meaning. These suffixes often serve the same purposes in Fula that prepositions do in English. The Fula or Fulfulde language is characterized by a robust noun class system, with 24 to 26 noun classes being common across
928-679: Is spoken as a first language by the Fula people ("Fulani", Fula: Fulɓe ) from the Senegambia region and Guinea to Cameroon , Nigeria , and Sudan and by related groups such as the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River Valley. It is also spoken as a second language by various peoples in the region, such as the Kirdi of northern Cameroon and northeastern Nigeria . Several names are applied to
986-693: Is still fundamentally one language. However, Ethnologue has found that nine different translations are needed to make the Bible comprehensible for most Fula speakers , and it treats these varieties as separate languages. They are listed in the box at the beginning of this article. Fulfulde is an official lingua franca in Guinea , Senegal , Gambia , northeastern Nigeria , Cameroon , Mali , Burkina Faso , Northern Ghana , Southern Niger and Northern Benin (in Borgou Region, where many speakers are bilingual), and
1044-505: Is used in all voices. Some middle-voice verbs are reflexive . A common example are verbs from the root - 𞤤𞤮𞥅𞤼 loot- : Another feature of the language is initial consonant mutation between singular and plural forms of nouns and of verbs (except in Pular, no consonant mutation exists in verbs, only in nouns) . A simplified schema is: Fula has inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns. The inclusive pronouns include both
1102-448: Is used instead of ɲ. a , aa , b , mb (or nb ), ɓ , c , d , nd , ɗ , e , ee , f , g , ng , h , i , ii , j , nj , k , l , m , n , ŋ , ɲ (ny or ñ ) , o , oo , p , r , s , t , u , uu , w , y , ƴ or ʼy, ʼ The letters q , v , x , z are used in some cases for loan words. Long vowels are written doubled: <aa, ee, ii, oo, uu> The standard Fulfulde alphabet adopted during
1160-467: The horma , a tributary tax of cattle or goods. While the zawiya were exploited in a sense, the relationship was often more or less symbiotic. Under both these groups, but still part of the Western Sahara society, were the znaga tribes, people who worked in lower caste occupations, such as fishermen (cf. Imraguen ), as well as peripheral semi-tribal groups working in the same fields (among them
1218-564: The Arabic script or Ajami since before European colonization by many scholars and learned people including Usman dan Fodio and the early emirs of the northern Nigeria emirates. This continues to a certain degree and notably in some areas like Guinea and Cameroon . Fula also has Arabic loanwords . When written using the Latin script , Fula uses the following additional special "hooked" characters to distinguish meaningfully different sounds in
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#17331155407311276-839: The Battle of Danki , the Denianke received tribute from over a dozen vassal kingdoms. These included, at least for part of the period, the Kingdom of Jolof , Waalo , Cayor , Gajaaga , Diarra and Wagadu, among others. They reached the apex of their power in the early 17th century under Satigi Samba Lamu, when they controlled both the mouth of the Senegal and many of the trans-Saharan trade routes. The Denianke ruled animist monarchs over an increasingly Islamic populace. The Torodbe became increasingly influential, opposing Denianke leadership and calling for jihads against neighboring animist Mandinka states. The reign of Silatigi Siree Sawa Laamu (r.1669-1702) saw
1334-558: The Franco-Prussian War of the 1870s, colonial expansion slowed. The Emirate of Trarza was undisturbed so long as it kept north the French possessions and did not interfere in trade. During the next thirty years, Trarza fell into internecine conflict with neighboring states over control of the Chemama , the area of agricultural settlements just north of the river. Traders in Saint-Louis profited by buying goods from Mauritania and selling
1392-560: The Imamate of Futa Toro . The Deniaankobe were the clan of Koli Tenguella . There are a variety of theories for the origin of the name either citing illustrious ancestors named Denia or Deeny or, more likely, Dena , the place where Koli's forces had settled in Futa Jallon before conquering Futa Toro. Great Fulo is the term given to the kingdom and its leader by the Portuguese. Tenguella
1450-760: The Soninke kingdom of Gajaaga as well as cloth moving west; and salt, and European products coming east from the coast. The kingdom's main export was hides. Palm products and beeswax were also important early trade goods. In the 17th century French, English, and Dutch traders entered the market looking to purchase gold and ivory as well as slaves. Fula language Fula ( / ˈ f uː l ə / FOO -lə ), also known as Fulani ( / f ʊ ˈ l ɑː n iː / fuul- AH -nee ) or Fulah ( Fulfulde , Pulaar , Pular ; Adlam : 𞤊𞤵𞤤𞤬𞤵𞤤𞤣𞤫 , 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪 , 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞤪 ; Ajami : ࢻُلْࢻُلْدٜ , ݒُلَارْ , بُۛلَر ),
1508-471: The "professional" castes, mallemin and igawen ). All these groups were considered to be among the bidan , or Arab whites. Below them were ranked groups known as Haratin , a "black" population (ethnic sub-Saharan). They are generally considered descendants of freed slaves of sub-Saharan African origins; some sources suggest they were descendants of the first inhabitants of the Sahara. (Note that Haratin ,
1566-516: The 1950s and 1960s to create a unique script to write Fulfulde. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, two teenage brothers, Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry from the Nzérékoré Region of Guinea, created the Adlam script , which accurately represents all the sounds of Fulani. The script is written from right to left and includes 28 letters with 5 vowels and 23 consonants. Fula has also been written in
1624-578: The Denianke empire would hasten the breakup of the Jolof state into several warring kingdoms. He established a fixed capital in Tumbere-Jiinde in what is today Senegal's Futa Toro region and reconquered Kingi. Koli died in 1537 during a war against the kingdom of Bussa. Koli was succeeded by his brother Labba Tenguella, beginning the Denianke dynasty (or Denyanke). After the 1549 collapse of the Jolof Empire at
1682-508: The French defeated a combined Waalo and Moorish force; they formally assimilated (the then depopulated) Waalo territory into the French colony. By 1860, Faidherbe had built a series of inland forts up the Senegal River , to Médine just below the Félou waterfall. He forced Trarza and their neighbors to accept the Senegal river as a formal boundary to their influence. But with the French defeat in
1740-670: The French had put down all resistance in Adrar and southern Mauritania. As a result of the conquest of Adrar, the French established their military ability and assured the ascendancy of the French-supported marabouts over the warrior clans within Maure society. The fighting took a large toll on the animal herds of the nomadic Maures, who sought to replenish their herds in the traditional manner—by raiding other camps. From 1912 to 1934, French security forces repeatedly thwarted such raids. The last raid by
1798-533: The French purchased in increasing quantities for its use in industrial fabric production. West Africa had become the sole supplier of world Gum Arabic by the 18th century. Its export at Saint-Louis doubled in amount in the decade of the 1830s alone. Trarza's collection of taxes and its threat to bypass Saint-Louis by sending gum to the British traders at Portendick , eventually brought the Emirate into direct conflict with
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1856-629: The French. A new emir, Muhammad al-Habib , had signed an agreement with the Waalo Kingdom , directly to the south of the river. In return for his promise of an end to raids in Waalo territory, the Emir took the heiress of Waalo as a bride. The prospect that Trarza might inherit control of both banks of the Senegal struck at the security of French traders. The French initiated the Franco-Trarzan War of 1825 with
1914-447: The Fula noun class system and the marking of gender is done with adjectives rather than class markers . Noun classes are marked by suffixes on nouns. These suffixes are the same as the class name, though they are frequently subject to phonological processes, most frequently the dropping of the suffix's initial consonant. The table below illustrates the class name, the semantic property associated with class membership, and an example of
1972-554: The Fula there against Mande domination. By 1490 Tenguella's actions in the upper Gambia river basin were threatening the communication lines between the Mali Empire and their western provinces of Kaabu as well as the Bambuk gold fields. In 1511, after years of mounting tensions, Tenguella invaded the Kingdom of Diarra , the rulers of which called for help from the Songhai. Amar Konjago,
2030-545: The Fulfulde dialects. Noun classes in Fula are abstract categories with some classes having semantic attributes that characterize a subset of that class' members, and others being marked by a membership too diverse to warrant any semantic categorization of the class' members. For example, classes are for stringy, long things, and another for big things, another for liquids, a noun class for strong, rigid objects, another for human or humanoid traits etc. Gender does not have any role in
2088-603: The Hassane rulers for protection. Their leaders' grievances with Trarza's rulers were skillfully exploited by the French. During this period, three noted marabouts had great influence in Mauritania: Shaykh Sidiya Baba , whose authority was strongest in Trarza, Brakna , and Tagant ; Shaykh Saad Bu , whose importance extended to Tagant and northeast Senegal ; and Shaykh Ma al Aynin , who exerted leadership in Adrar and
2146-417: The Saint-Louis commercial companies, to whom pacification meant the end of the lucrative arms trade. But, by 1904 Coppolani had peacefully subdued Trarza, Brakna, and Tagant; he also had established French military posts across the central region of southern Mauritania. As Faidherbe had suggested fifty years earlier, the key to the pacification of Mauritania lay in the Adrar. There, Shaykh Ma al Aynin had begun
2204-409: The Songhai defeated Tenguella, ending his state. Tenguella's son, Koli, led further migrations, and redirected military efforts against the Jolof Empire , hastening its collapse. After Koli's reign, the Denianke dynasty ruled a large empire but later on succession struggles, foreign intervention, and instability followed. In 1776, Sulayman Bal led a revolution, overthrowing the dynasty and establishing
2262-1068: The UNESCO-sponsored expert meeting in Bamako in March 1966 is as follows: a, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, f, g, ng, h, i, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ny ( later ɲ or ñ), o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y, ƴ, ʼ. The following is a sample text in Fula of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The first line is in Adlam, the second in Latin script, the third in IPA. 𞤋𞤲𞥆𞤢𞤥𞤢 Innama /inːama 𞤢𞥄𞤣𞤫𞥅𞤶𞤭 aadeeji aːdeːɟi 𞤬𞤮𞤬 fof fof 𞤨𞤮𞤼𞤭, poti, poti, 𞤲𞤣𞤭𞤥𞤯𞤭𞤣𞤭 ndimɗidi ⁿdimɗidi 𞤫 e e 𞤶𞤭𞤦𞤭𞤲𞤢𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤫 jibinannde ɟibinanⁿde 𞤼𞤮 to to 𞤦𞤢𞤲𞥆𞤺𞤫 Trarza Emirate The Emirate of Trarza
2320-501: The basis in the late 20th century for much of Morocco's claim to Mauritania. In May 1905, before the French column could set out for Adrar, Coppolani was killed in Tidjikdja . With the death of Coppolani, the tide turned in favor of Shaykh Ma al Aynin, who rallied many of the Maures with promises of Moroccan help. The French government hesitated for three years while Shaykh Ma al Aynin urged
2378-546: The beginning of the 20th century, the French used tensions within this system to overthrow the rulers of Trarza and its neighbors and establish colonial administration. In the 17th century, the French had established a trading post at the island Saint-Louis in the mouth of the Senegal River. The Bedouins of Mauritania came to control much of the trade from the interior that reached the French post. Trarza and other emirates profited from their raids against non-Muslims to their south by
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2436-450: The interior. Trarza had renewed its alliance with Waalo, and Muhammed's son Ely was enthroned in Waalo as brak (king). Trarza had also formed a pact with former rival and neighbor, the Emirate of Brakna , to resist French expansion. They almost took Saint-Louis in a raid in 1855, but the French punitive expedition was swift and decisive. At the Battle of Jubuldu on 25 February 1855,
2494-406: The language, just as to the Fula people . They call their language Pulaar or Pular in the western dialects and Fulfulde in the central and eastern dialects. Fula , Fulah and Fulani in English come originally from Manding (esp. Mandinka, but also Malinke and Bamana) and Hausa , respectively; Peul in French, also occasionally found in literature in English, comes from Wolof . Fula
2552-461: The language: Ɓ/ɓ [ ɓ ] , Ɗ/ɗ [ ɗ ] , Ŋ/ŋ [ ŋ ] , Ɲ/ɲ [ ɲ ] , Ƴ/ƴ [ ʔʲ ] . The letters c , j , and r , respectively represent the sounds [ c ~ tʃ ], [ ɟ ~ dʒ ], and [ r ]. Double vowel characters indicate that the vowels are elongated. An apostrophe (ʼ) is used as a glottal stop. It uses the five vowel system denoting vowel sounds and their lengths. In Nigeria ʼy substitutes ƴ, and in Senegal Ñ/ñ
2610-567: The midst of the final wars between the local Berber Bedouins and the Arab conquerors of the Maghreb , was organized as a semi-nomadic state led by a Muslim Prince, or Emir . Trarza was one of three powerful emirates that controlled the northwest bank of the Senegal River from the 17th to the 19th centuries CE; the others were the emirates of Brakna , and the Tagant . The Arab conquests had resulted in
2668-490: The next few decades with the Moors holding the real power. The dynasty was overthrown in a revolution led by Sulayman Bal in 1776. He stepped down once the holy war was won and was replaced by Abdul Qadir ibn Hammadi , first almamy of the Imamate of Futa Toro . The silatigi was generally the oldest male of Tenguella's line, but inheritance had to be approved by the batu Fuuta , an assembly of nobles, which also functioned as
2726-470: The north bank of the Senegal and the lucrative trade in gum arabic . The French in Saint-Louis attempted the same, and instability and foreign intervention became endemic in Futa Toro and much of the Senegal river valley. The well-known ceddo war chief Samba Gelaajo Jeegi took power with the backing of both major powers in 1725, but was unable to break free of their influence and was driven out in 1731. Satigis succeeded each other with bewildering speed for
2784-470: The north, as well as in Spanish Sahara and southern Morocco . By enlisting the support of Shaykhs Sidiya and Saad against the depredations of the warrior clans and in favor of a Pax Gallica , Coppolani was able to exploit the fundamental conflicts in Maure society. He was opposed by both the French colonial administration in Senegal, which saw no value in the wastelands north of the Senegal River , and by
2842-584: The outbreak of the Char Bouba war , an Islamist uprising against traditionalist monarchies in the Senegal river valley that sparked a civil war among the Deniankes. Futa Toro had no clear rules on the succession of the satigi , leading to regular power struggles and civil wars. Beginning in the early 18th century, the Trarza Moors , supported by the sultan of Morocco Moulay Ismail , attempted to exert control over
2900-480: The particularly effective and far-ranging northern nomads, the Reguibat , occurred in 1934 and covered a distance of 6,000 kilometers. They netted 800 head of cattle, 270 camels, and 10 slaves. Yet, except for minor raids and occasional attacks, the Maures generally acquiesced to French authority. They did attack Port-Etienne (present-day Nouadhibou ) in 1924 and 1927. With pacification, the French took on administering
2958-642: The seizure of slaves for sale and by the taxes they levied on Muslim states of the area. From the mid-18th to the 19th centuries, Trarza became involved deeply in the internal politics of the south bank of the Senegal. It raided and briefly conquered or backed political factions in the kingdoms of Cayor , Djolof , and Waalo . As the Atlantic Slave Trade was banned by Great Britain and the United States in 1808, Trarza and its neighbors' collected taxes on trade, especially acacia gum ( Gum Arabic ), which
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#17331155407313016-507: The space of four years (1901–1905), Coppolani traveled the area signing protectorates over much of what is now Mauritania , and beginning the expansion of French forces. The Zawiya tribes, descendants of the earlier Berber-led tribes conquered in the 17th century, remained a religious caste within Moorish society. They produced leaders whom the French called (perhaps erroneously) marabouts . Having been disarmed for centuries, they relied upon
3074-447: The speaker and those being spoken to, while the exclusive pronouns exclude the listeners. The pronoun that corresponds to a given noun is determined by the noun class. Because men and women belong to the same noun class, the English pronouns "he" and "she" are translated into Fula by the same pronoun. However, depending on the dialect, there are some 25 different noun classes, each with its own pronoun. Sometimes those pronouns have both
3132-503: The various Moorish forces weapons, and the French rarely interfered. In 1901, French administrator Xavier Coppolani began a plan of "peaceful penetration" into the territories of Trarza and its fellow emirates. This consisted of a divide-and-conquer strategy in which the French promised the Zawiya tribes and, by extension the Haratin , greater independence and protection from the Hassane . In
3190-1415: The vast territory of Mauritania. c.1640 Trarza confederation founded. 15 Dec 1902 French protectorate. c.1660 - 1703, Addi I 1703 - 1727, Ali Sandura 1727 - c.1758, `Umar c. 1758 - 17.., Mukhtar Ould `Umar 17.. - 17.., Muhammad Babana 17.. - 17.., Addi II 1795 - 1800, `Umar Ould Mukhtar "Ould Kumba" 1800 - 1827, `Umar Ould Mukhtar: distinct from preceding 1827 - 1860, Muhammad Ould `Umar al-Habib (d. 1860) 1860 - Jul 1871, Sidi Mubayrika Ould Muhammad (d. 1871) Jul 1871 - 1873, Ahmed Salem Ould `Umar (d. 1873) 1873 - Oct 1886, `Ali Dyombot Ould Muhammad (d. 1886) Oct 1886 - Dec 1886, Muhammad Fadil Ould `Ali (d. 1886) Dec 1886 - 1891, `Umar Salem Ould `Umar (d. 1893) 1891 - 18 Apr 1905, Ahmed Salem Ould `Ali (d. 1905) bef.1903, Muhammad Salem Ould Ibrahim ( in rebellion ) 1903 - 1917, > 1932 - 1944, Ahmed Ould Deid (d. 1944) 1944 - 1958, Vacant? 1958 - ?, Muhammad Fall Ould `Umayr . [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from this source, which
3248-400: Was a Fula silatigi , a religious leader and political chief, in Futa Toro . Pushed by an expansionist Jolof Empire, in the 1450s he led an emigration eastwards, establishing a state known as Futa Kingi in the lands of the Kingdom of Diarra . From this base, Tenguella militarily intervened in a number of neighboring areas and disrupted trade. His son Koli went to Futa Jallon to organize
3306-566: Was a pre-colonial state in what is today southwest Mauritania . It has survived as a traditional confederation of semi-nomadic people to the present day. Its name is shared with the modern Region of Trarza . The population, a mixture of Berber tribes, had been there for a long time before being conquered in the 11th century by Hassaniya Arabic speakers from the north. Europeans later called these people Moors / Maures , and thus have titled this group "the Trarza Moors". Trarza, founded in
3364-506: Was loose and administration was decentralized, with revenues shared between the satigi and the provincial governors The king with his large herds of horses was highly mobile. Thus the capital, to the extent that there was one, moved frequently. Futa Tooro benefited from extensive trade networks, with horses and donkeys moving south from the pasturelands of the Sahel ; kola nuts , iron, and slaves moving north from Kaabu ; gold from Bambuk and
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