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103-483: In geochemistry , paleoclimatology and paleoceanography δ O or delta-O-18 is a measure of the deviation in ratio of stable isotopes oxygen-18 (O) and oxygen-16 (O). It is commonly used as a measure of the temperature of precipitation , as a measure of groundwater/mineral interactions, and as an indicator of processes that show isotopic fractionation , like methanogenesis . In paleosciences, O:O data from corals , foraminifera and ice cores are used as

206-483: A proxy for temperature. It is defined as the deviation in "per mil" (‰, parts per thousand) between a sample and a standard: where the standard has a known isotopic composition, such as Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW). The fractionation can arise from kinetic , equilibrium , or mass-independent fractionation . Foraminifera shells are composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) and are found in many common geological environments. The ratio of O to O in

309-443: A / k . The residence time is defined as where I and O are the input and output rates. In the above example, the steady-state input and output rates are both equal to a , so τ res = 1/ k . If the input and output rates are nonlinear functions of C , they may still be closely balanced over time scales much greater than the residence time; otherwise, there will be large fluctuations in C . In that case,

412-501: A computation based on 1672 analyses of numerous kinds of rocks Clarke arrived at the following as the average percentage composition of the Earth's crust: SiO 2 =59.71, Al 2 O 3 =15.41, Fe 2 O 3 =2.63, FeO=3.52, MgO=4.36, CaO=4.90, Na 2 O=3.55, K 2 O=2.80, H 2 O=1.52, TiO 2 =0.60, P 2 O 5 =0.22, (total 99.22%). All the other constituents occur only in very small quantities, usually much less than 1%. These oxides combine in

515-424: A concentration that is a function C ( r , t ) of position and time, but it is impractical to model the full variability. Instead, in an approach borrowed from chemical engineering , geochemists average the concentration over regions of the Earth called geochemical reservoirs . The choice of reservoir depends on the problem; for example, the ocean may be a single reservoir or be split into multiple reservoirs. In

618-569: A depth of 2,755 m; after a brief closure, drilling continued during the winter of 1995. In 1996 it was stopped at depth 3,623 m, by the request of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research that expressed worries about possible contamination of Lake Vostok . This ice core , drilled collaboratively with the French, produced a record of past environmental conditions stretching back 420,000 years and covering four previous glacial periods. For

721-466: A focus on isotope-biogeochemistry and the evidence of the earliest life processes in Precambrian . Some subfields of geochemistry are: The building blocks of materials are the chemical elements . These can be identified by their atomic number Z, which is the number of protons in the nucleus . An element can have more than one value for N, the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The sum of these

824-454: A fourth group, and in the fifth group FeO enter the magnesium silicates. The compositions of the planets and the Moon are chondritic , meaning that within each group the ratios between elements are the same as in carbonaceous chondrites. The estimates of planetary compositions depend on the model used. In the equilibrium condensation model, each planet was formed from a feeding zone in which

927-421: A haphazard way. For example, potash (potassium carbonate) and soda ( sodium carbonate ) combine to produce feldspars . In some cases, they may take other forms, such as nepheline , leucite , and muscovite , but in the great majority of instances they are found as feldspar. Phosphoric acid with lime (calcium carbonate) forms apatite . Titanium dioxide with ferrous oxide gives rise to ilmenite . Part of

1030-412: A ligand contains more than one donor atom, forming very strong complexes, also called chelates (the ligand is the chelator). One of the most common chelators is EDTA ( ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ), which can replace six molecules of water and form strong bonds with metals that have a plus two charge. With stronger complexation, lower activity of the free metal ion is observed. One consequence of

1133-430: A little more than 47% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen . It occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief are silica , alumina , iron oxides , and various carbonates ( calcium carbonate , magnesium carbonate , sodium carbonate , and potassium carbonate ). The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From

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1236-463: A long time it was the only core to cover several glacial cycles; but in 2004 it was exceeded by the EPICA core, which, whilst shallower, covers a longer time span. In 2003 drilling was permitted to continue, but was halted at the estimated distance to the lake of only 130 m. The ancient lake was finally breached on 5 February 2012 when scientists stopped drilling at the depth of 3,770 metres and reached

1339-484: A proposal by Russia to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Vostok Station has an ice cap climate ( EF ), with subzero temperatures year round, typical as with much of Antarctica. Annual precipitation is only 22 millimetres (0.87 in) (all occurring as snow), making it one of the driest places on Earth . On average, Vostok station receives 26 days of snow per year. It is also one of

1442-454: A proxy for the total global mass of glacial ice sheets, to reconstruct the climate for the past five million years. The stacked record of the 57 cores was orbitally tuned to an orbitally driven ice model, the Milankovitch cycles of 41 ky ( obliquity ), 26 ky ( precession ) and 100 ky ( eccentricity ), which are all assumed to cause orbital forcing of global ice volume. Over

1545-414: A result, chemical reactions show a small isotope dependence, with heavier isotopes preferring species or compounds with a higher oxidation state; and in phase changes, heavier isotopes tend to concentrate in the heavier phases. Mass-dependent fractionation is largest in light elements because the difference in masses is a larger fraction of the total mass. Ratios between isotopes are generally compared to

1648-409: A scavenged-type trace metal is aluminium , which has strong interactions with particles as well as a short residence time in the ocean. The residence times of scavenged-type trace metals are around 100 to 1000 years. The concentrations of these metals are highest around bottom sediments, hydrothermal vents , and rivers. For aluminium, atmospheric dust provides the greatest source of external inputs into

1751-508: A small sub-group rich in olivine and without feldspar has been called the "ultramafic" rocks. They have very low percentages of silica but much iron and magnesia. Except these last, practically all rocks contain felspars or feldspathoid minerals. In the acid rocks, the common feldspars are orthoclase, perthite, microcline, and oligoclase—all having much silica and alkalis. In the mafic rocks labradorite, anorthite, and bytownite prevail, being rich in lime and poor in silica, potash, and soda. Augite

1854-593: A solid core captured nebular gas. In current models, the four giant planets have cores of rock and ice that are roughly the same size, but the proportion of hydrogen and helium decreases from about 300 Earth masses in Jupiter to 75 in Saturn and just a few in Uranus and Neptune. Thus, while the gas giants are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, the ice giants are primarily composed of heavier elements (O, C, N, S), primarily in

1957-564: A standard. For example, sulfur has four stable isotopes, of which the two most common are S and S. The ratio of their concentrations, R = S/ S , is reported as where R s is the same ratio for a standard. Because the differences are small, the ratio is multiplied by 1000 to make it parts per thousand (referred to as parts per mil). This is represented by the symbol ‰ . Equilibrium fractionation occurs between chemicals or phases that are in equilibrium with each other. In equilibrium fractionation between phases, heavier phases prefer

2060-433: A trace metal with a conservative-type distribution is molybdenum. It has a residence time within the oceans of around 8 x 10 years and is generally present as the molybdate anion (MoO 4 ). Molybdenum interacts weakly with particles and displays an almost uniform vertical profile in the ocean. Relative to the abundance of molybdenum in the ocean, the amount required as a metal cofactor for enzymes in marine phytoplankton

2163-414: A type of model called a box model , a reservoir is represented by a box with inputs and outputs. Geochemical models generally involve feedback. In the simplest case of a linear cycle, either the input or the output from a reservoir is proportional to the concentration. For example, salt is removed from the ocean by formation of evaporites , and given a constant rate of evaporation in evaporite basins,

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2266-623: Is a form of kinetic fractionation since reactions tend to be in one direction. Biological organisms prefer lighter isotopes because there is a lower energy cost in breaking energy bonds. In addition to the previously mentioned factors, the environment and species of the organism can have a large effect on the fractionation. Through a variety of physical and chemical processes, chemical elements change in concentration and move around in what are called geochemical cycles . An understanding of these changes requires both detailed observation and theoretical models. Each chemical compound, element or isotope has

2369-562: Is anomalously enriched. The pattern of elemental abundance is mainly due to two factors. The hydrogen, helium, and some of the lithium were formed in about 20 minutes after the Big Bang , while the rest were created in the interiors of stars . Meteorites come in a variety of compositions, but chemical analysis can determine whether they were once in planetesimals that melted or differentiated . Chondrites are undifferentiated and have round mineral inclusions called chondrules . With

2472-566: Is at 3,488 metres (11,444 ft) above sea level and is one of the most isolated established research stations on the Antarctic continent. The station was supplied from Mirny Station on the Antarctic coast. The station normally hosts 30 scientists and engineers in the summer. In winter, their number drops to 15. The only permanent research station located farther south is the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station , operated by

2575-451: Is based on "educated guesses". One difficulty with this model is that there may be significant errors in its prediction of volatile abundances because some volatiles are only partially condensed. The more common rock constituents are nearly all oxides ; chlorides , sulfides and fluorides are the only important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. By 1911, F. W. Clarke had calculated that

2678-490: Is believed to have recorded an average yearly temperature that was consistently lower than that of Vostok Station during the 37-month period that it was active in the late 1960s, and satellite readings have routinely detected colder temperatures in areas between Dome A and Dome F. The most recent record set was the October record low, set on 1 October 2021. Vostok is one of the coldest places on Earth . The average temperature of

2781-404: Is convenient in a purely formal classification like that outlined here to treat the whole assemblage as a distinct series. This classification is based essentially on the mineralogical constitution of the igneous rocks. Any chemical distinctions between the different groups, though implied, are relegated to a subordinate position. It is admittedly artificial, but it has grown up with the growth of

2884-719: Is found in the reduced form UO 2 (s). Vanadium is in several forms in oxidation state V(V); HVO 4 and H 2 VO 4 . Its reduced forms can include VO 2 , VO(OH) 3 , and V(OH) 3 . These relative dominance of these species depends on pH . In the water column of the ocean or deep lakes, vertical profiles of dissolved trace metals are characterized as following conservative–type , nutrient–type , or scavenged–type distributions. Across these three distributions, trace metals have different residence times and are used to varying extents by planktonic microorganisms. Trace metals with conservative-type distributions have high concentrations relative to their biological use. One example of

2987-506: Is low, olivine may be expected; where silica is present in greater quantity over ferromagnesian minerals, such as augite , hornblende , enstatite or biotite , occur rather than olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively low, leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur with free quartz. Nepheline , likewise, is usually found in rocks with much soda and comparatively little silica. With high alkalis , soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may be present. The lower

3090-536: Is negligible. Trace metals with nutrient-type distributions are strongly associated with the internal cycles of particulate organic matter, especially the assimilation by plankton. The lowest dissolved concentrations of these metals are at the surface of the ocean, where they are assimilated by plankton. As dissolution and decomposition occur at greater depths, concentrations of these trace metals increase. Residence times of these metals, such as zinc, are several thousand to one hundred thousand years. Finally, an example of

3193-480: Is possible, by rock analysis, to say approximately what minerals the rock contains, but there are numerous exceptions to any rule. Except in acid or siliceous igneous rocks containing greater than 66% of silica , known as felsic rocks, quartz is not abundant in igneous rocks. In basic rocks (containing 20% of silica or less) it is rare for them to contain as much silicon, these are referred to as mafic rocks. If magnesium and iron are above average while silica

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3296-543: Is present as the Mo(VI) oxidation state as MoO 4 (aq) in oxic environments. Mo(V) and Mo(IV) are present in reduced environments in the forms MoO 2 (aq) and MoS 2(s) . Rhenium is present as the Re(VII) oxidation state as ReO 4 within oxic conditions, but is reduced to Re(IV) which may form ReO 2 or ReS 2 . Uranium is in oxidation state VI in UO 2 (CO 3 ) 3 (aq) and

3399-401: Is that volatiles would not condense, so the planets would have no atmospheres and Earth no atmosphere. In chondritic mixing models, the compositions of chondrites are used to estimate planetary compositions. For example, one model mixes two components, one with the composition of C1 chondrites and one with just the refractory components of C1 chondrites. In another model, the abundances of

3502-427: Is the mass number , which is roughly equal to the atomic mass . Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers are called isotopes . A given isotope is identified by a letter for the element preceded by a superscript for the mass number. For example, two common isotopes of chlorine are Cl and Cl. There are about 1700 known combinations of Z and N, of which only about 260 are stable. However, most of

3605-679: Is the most common ferromagnesian in mafic rocks, but biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in felsic rocks. Rocks that contain leucite or nepheline, either partly or wholly replacing felspar, are not included in this table. They are essentially of intermediate or of mafic character. We might in consequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc., in which feldspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many transitions between syenites of ordinary type and nepheline — or leucite — syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or essexite. But, as many minerals develop in these "alkali" rocks that are uncommon elsewhere, it

3708-448: The 2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition and was operated year-round for more than 72 years. The station was temporarily closed from January 1962 to January 1963, from February to November 1994, and during the winter of 2003. In 1959, the Vostok station was the scene of a fight between two scientists over a game of chess. When one of them lost the game, he became so enraged that he attacked

3811-512: The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting . Professor Kudryashov's Drilling Complex Building : The drilling complex building stands close to Vostok Station at an elevation of 3,488 metres (11,444 ft). It was built in the summer season of 1983–1984. Under the leadership of Professor Boris Kudryashov, ancient ice core samples were obtained. The building has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 88), following

3914-592: The Earth's crust , forming silicates and other oxides. Siderophile elements ( Fe , Co , Ni , Pt , Re , Os ) have an affinity for iron and tend to concentrate in the core . Chalcophile elements ( Cu , Ag , Zn , Pb , S ) form sulfides ; and atmophile elements ( O , N , H and noble gases) dominate the atmosphere. Within each group, some elements are refractory , remaining stable at high temperatures, while others are volatile , evaporating more easily, so heating can separate them. The chemical composition of

4017-580: The University of Oslo applied these methods to many common minerals and formulated a set of rules for how elements are grouped. Goldschmidt published this work in the series Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente [Geochemical Laws of the Distribution of Elements]. The research of Manfred Schidlowski from the 1960s to around the year 2002 was concerned with the biochemistry of the Early Earth with

4120-430: The giant planets , which are dominated by hydrogen and helium and have lower mean densities. These can be further subdivided into the gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) and the ice giants ( Uranus and Neptune ) that have large icy cores. Most of our direct information on the composition of the giant planets is from spectroscopy . Since the 1930s, Jupiter was known to contain hydrogen, methane and ammonium . In

4223-524: The lowest reliably measured natural temperature on Earth of −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F; 184.0 K). Research includes ice core drilling and magnetometry . Vostok (Russian for 'east') was named after Vostok , the lead ship of the First Russian Antarctic Expedition captained by Fabian von Bellingshausen . The Bellingshausen Station was named after this captain (the second ship, Mirny , captained by Mikhail Lazarev , became

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4326-439: The "mafic" group. The "intermediate" rocks include those characterized by the general absence of both quartz and olivine. An important subdivision of these contains a very high percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and consequently has minerals such as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is often separated from the others as the "alkali" or "soda" rocks, and there is a corresponding series of mafic rocks. Lastly,

4429-463: The 1960s, interferometry greatly increased the resolution and sensitivity of spectral analysis, allowing the identification of a much greater collection of molecules including ethane , acetylene , water and carbon monoxide . However, Earth-based spectroscopy becomes increasingly difficult with more remote planets, since the reflected light of the Sun is much dimmer; and spectroscopic analysis of light from

4532-490: The 1970s, the Soviet Union drilled a set of cores 500–952 metres (1,640–3,123 ft) deep. These have been used to study the oxygen isotope composition of the ice, which showed that ice of the last glacial period was present below about 400 metres' depth. Then three more holes were drilled: in 1984, Hole 3G reached a final depth of 2,202 m; in 1990, Hole 4G reached a final depth of 2,546 m; and in 1993 Hole 5G reached

4635-478: The Earth and other bodies is determined by two opposing processes: differentiation and mixing. In the Earth's mantle , differentiation occurs at mid-ocean ridges through partial melting , with more refractory materials remaining at the base of the lithosphere while the remainder rises to form basalt . After an oceanic plate descends into the mantle, convection eventually mixes the two parts together. Erosion differentiates granite , separating it into clay on

4738-527: The Earth is composed of non-silicate minerals such as carbonates , oxides , and sulfides . The other determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending consolidation, plays, on the whole, a smaller part, yet is by no means negligible. Certain minerals are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive rocks, e.g., microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very rare in plutonic masses; many minerals have special peculiarities in microscopic character according to whether they crystallized in-depth or near

4841-527: The Russian government began construction on a new, modern station building to replace the aging facilities. Construction of the new facility was completed in Saint Petersburg to be transported to Vostok Station by ship, but continuing delays have pushed back completion of the new station to no earlier than 2023. On January 28, 2024, Russian President Vladimir Putin took part in the ceremony of commissioning

4944-876: The Solar System, there could be little systematic dependence on position. Direct information on Mars, Venus and Mercury largely comes from spacecraft missions. Using gamma-ray spectrometers , the composition of the crust of Mars has been measured by the Mars Odyssey orbiter, the crust of Venus by some of the Venera missions to Venus, and the crust of Mercury by the MESSENGER spacecraft. Additional information on Mars comes from meteorites that have landed on Earth (the Shergottites , Nakhlites , and Chassignites , collectively known as SNC meteorites). Abundances are also constrained by

5047-620: The United States at the geographic South Pole . The Chinese Kunlun Station is farther south than Vostok but is occupied only during summers. Some of the challenges faced by those living on the station were described in Vladimir Sanin 's books such as Newbie in the Antarctic (1973), 72 Degrees Below Zero (1975) and others. Vostok Station was established on 16 December 1957 (during the International Geophysical Year ) by

5150-445: The ages of 4.56 billion years, they date to the early solar system . A particular kind, the CI chondrite , has a composition that closely matches that of the Sun's photosphere, except for depletion of some volatiles (H, He, C, N, O) and a group of elements (Li, B, Be) that are destroyed by nucleosynthesis in the Sun. Because of the latter group, CI chondrites are considered a better match for

5253-497: The chemistry of rocks and minerals. The chief USGS chemist, Frank Wigglesworth Clarke , noted that the elements generally decrease in abundance as their atomic weights increase, and summarized the work on elemental abundance in The Data of Geochemistry . The composition of meteorites was investigated and compared to terrestrial rocks as early as 1850. In 1901, Oliver C. Farrington hypothesised that, although there were differences,

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5356-432: The cold season (from April to September) is about −66 °C (−87 °F), while the average temperature of the warm season (from October to March) is about −44 °C (−47 °F). The lowest reliably measured temperature on Earth of −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) was in Vostok on 21 July 1983 at 05:45 Moscow Time , which was 07:45 for Vostok's time zone, and 01:45 UTC (See List of weather records ). This beat

5459-495: The composition of the early Solar System. Moreover, the chemical analysis of CI chondrites is more accurate than for the photosphere, so it is generally used as the source for chemical abundance, despite their rareness (only five have been recovered on Earth). The planets of the Solar System are divided into two groups: the four inner planets are the terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars ), with relatively small sizes and rocky surfaces. The four outer planets are

5562-425: The compositions of solids were determined by the temperature in that zone. Thus, Mercury formed at 1400 K, where iron remained in a pure metallic form and there was little magnesium or silicon in solid form; Venus at 900 K, so all the magnesium and silicon condensed; Earth at 600 K, so it contains FeS and silicates; and Mars at 450 K, so FeO was incorporated into magnesium silicates. The greatest problem with this theory

5665-404: The corrosion of porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and trachytes, early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be found in great numbers partially converted into augite and magnetite. Hornblende and biotite were stable under the pressures and other conditions below the surface, but unstable at higher levels. In the ground-mass of these rocks, augite is almost universally present. But

5768-494: The five fractionation groups are estimated using an index element for each group. For the most refractory group, uranium is used; iron for the second; the ratios of potassium and thallium to uranium for the next two; and the molar ratio FeO/(FeO+ MgO ) for the last. Using thermal and seismic models along with heat flow and density, Fe can be constrained to within 10 percent on Earth, Venus, and Mercury. U can be constrained within about 30% on Earth, but its abundance on other planets

5871-423: The form CdCl (aq) in oxic waters or CdS(s) in a reduced environment. Thus, higher concentrations of Cd in marine sediments may indicate low redox potential conditions in the past. For copper(II), a prevalent form is CuCl (aq) within oxic environments and CuS(s) and Cu 2 S within reduced environments. The reduced seawater environment leads to two possible oxidation states of copper, Cu(I) and Cu(II). Molybdenum

5974-412: The form of water, methane, and ammonia. The surfaces are cold enough for molecular hydrogen to be liquid, so much of each planet is likely a hydrogen ocean overlaying one of heavier compounds. Outside the core, Jupiter has a mantle of liquid metallic hydrogen and an atmosphere of molecular hydrogen and helium. Metallic hydrogen does not mix well with helium, and in Saturn, it may form a separate layer below

6077-419: The forward reaction is enhanced if the humidity of the air is less than 100% or the water vapor is moved by a wind. Kinetic fractionation generally is enhanced compared to equilibrium fractionation and depends on factors such as reaction rate, reaction pathway and bond energy. Since lighter isotopes generally have weaker bonds, they tend to react faster and enrich the reaction products. Biological fractionation

6180-484: The heavier isotopes. For two phases A and B, the effect can be represented by the factor In the liquid-vapor phase transition for water, a l-v at 20 degrees Celsius is 1.0098 for O and 1.084 for H. In general, fractionation is greater at lower temperatures. At 0 °C, the factors are 1.0117 and 1.111. When there is no equilibrium between phases or chemical compounds, kinetic fractionation can occur. For example, at interfaces between liquid water and air,

6283-570: The ice did not instantly spring to mind. In 1991, Jeff Ridley, a remote-sensing specialist with the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London , directed a European satellite called ERS-1 to turn its high-frequency array toward the center of the Antarctic ice cap. It confirmed the 1974 discovery, but it was not until 1993 that the discovery was published in the Journal of Glaciology . Space-based radar revealed that

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6386-506: The largest two elements by fraction of total mass are hydrogen (74.9%) and helium (23.8%), with all the remaining elements contributing just 1.3%. There is a general trend of exponential decrease in abundance with increasing atomic number, although elements with even atomic number are more common than their odd-numbered neighbors (the Oddo–Harkins rule ). Compared to the overall trend, lithium , boron and beryllium are depleted and iron

6489-421: The likely compositions. High-pressure experiments predict that hydrogen will be a metallic liquid in the interior of Jupiter and Saturn, while in Uranus and Neptune it remains in the molecular state. Estimates also depend on models for the formation of the planets. Condensation of the presolar nebula would result in a gaseous planet with the same composition as the Sun, but the planets could also have formed when

6592-456: The lime forms lime feldspar. Magnesium carbonate and iron oxides with silica crystallize as olivine or enstatite , or with alumina and lime form the complex ferromagnesian silicates of which the pyroxenes , amphiboles , and biotites are the chief. Any excess of silica above what is required to neutralize the bases will separate out as quartz ; excess of alumina crystallizes as corundum . These must be regarded only as general tendencies. It

6695-419: The lower reactivity of complexed metals compared to the same concentration of free metal is that the chelation tends to stabilize metals in the aqueous solution instead of in solids. Concentrations of the trace metals cadmium , copper , molybdenum , manganese , rhenium , uranium and vanadium in sediments record the redox history of the oceans. Within aquatic environments, cadmium(II) can either be in

6798-422: The lowest sunshine for any calendar month, with an absolute maximum of 0 hours of sunshine per month during polar night. Of official weather stations that are currently in operation, Vostok is the coldest on Earth in terms of mean annual temperature. However, it has been disputed that Vostok Station is the coldest-known location on Earth. The now inactive Plateau Station , located on the central Antarctic plateau,

6901-535: The masses of the planets, while the internal distribution of elements is constrained by their moments of inertia. The planets condensed from the solar nebula, and much of the details of their composition are determined by fractionation as they cooled. The phases that condense fall into five groups. First to condense are materials rich in refractory elements such as Ca and Al. These are followed by nickel and iron, then magnesium silicates . Below about 700 kelvins (700 K), FeS and volatile-rich metals and silicates form

7004-417: The metallic hydrogen. Terrestrial planets are believed to have come from the same nebular material as the giant planets, but they have lost most of the lighter elements and have different histories. Planets closer to the Sun might be expected to have a higher fraction of refractory elements, but if their later stages of formation involved collisions of large objects with orbits that sampled different parts of

7107-502: The mystery of the genesis of our planets and their inorganic matter may be revealed." However, for the rest of the century the more common term was "chemical geology", and there was little contact between geologists and chemists . Geochemistry emerged as a separate discipline after major laboratories were established, starting with the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1884, which began systematic surveys of

7210-592: The namesake for Mirny Station ). Vostok Research Station is around 1,301 kilometres (808 mi) from the Geographic South Pole , at the middle of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet . Vostok is located near the southern pole of inaccessibility and the south geomagnetic pole , making it one of the optimal places to observe changes in the Earth's magnetosphere . Other studies include actinometry , geophysics , medicine and climatology . The station

7313-474: The ocean floor, sandstone on the edge of the continent, and dissolved minerals in ocean waters. Metamorphism and anatexis (partial melting of crustal rocks) can mix these elements together again. In the ocean, biological organisms can cause chemical differentiation, while dissolution of the organisms and their wastes can mix the materials again. A major source of differentiation is fractionation , an unequal distribution of elements and isotopes. This can be

7416-403: The ocean. Vostok Station#Ice core drilling Vostok Station ( Russian : ста́нция Восто́к , romanized :  stántsiya Vostók , pronounced [ˈstant͡sɨjə vɐˈstok] , meaning "Station East") is a Russian research station in inland Princess Elizabeth Land , Antarctica . Founded by the Soviet Union in 1957, the station lies at the southern Pole of Cold , with

7519-475: The other with an ice axe . According to some sources, it was a murder, though other sources say that the attack was not fatal. Afterwards, chess games were banned at Soviet, and later Russian, Antarctic stations. In 1974, when British scientists in Antarctica performed an airborne ice-penetrating radar survey and detected strange radar readings at the site, the presence of a liquid, freshwater lake below

7622-457: The oxygen isotope ratios of environmental water. Fractionation of oxygen isotopes in these tissues may be affected by biological factors such as body temperature and diet. Geochemistry The term geochemistry was first used by the Swiss-German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838: "a comparative geochemistry ought to be launched, before geognosy can become geology, and before

7725-669: The past million years, there have been a number of very strong glacial maxima and minima, spaced by roughly 100 ky. As the observed isotope variations are similar in shape to the temperature variations recorded for the past 420 ky at Vostok Station , the figure shown on the right aligns the values of δO (right scale) with the reported temperature variations from the Vostok ice core (left scale), following Petit et al. (1999). δO from biomineralized tissues may also be used in reconstructing past environmental conditions. In vertebrates, apatite from bone mineral , tooth enamel and dentin contains phosphate [PO 4 ] groups which may preserve

7828-462: The percentage of silica and alkali's, the greater is the prevalence of plagioclase feldspar as contracted with soda or potash feldspar. Earth's crust is composed of 90% silicate minerals and their abundance in the Earth is as follows: plagioclase feldspar (39%), alkali feldspar (12%), quartz (12%), pyroxene (11%), amphiboles (5%), micas (5%), clay minerals (5%); the remaining silicate minerals make up another 3% of Earth's crust. Only 8% of

7931-462: The planets can only be used to detect vibrations of molecules, which are in the infrared frequency range. This constrains the abundances of the elements H, C and N. Two other elements are detected: phosphorus in the gas phosphine (PH 3 ) and germanium in germane (GeH 4 ). The helium atom has vibrations in the ultraviolet range, which is strongly absorbed by the atmospheres of the outer planets and Earth. Thus, despite its abundance, helium

8034-406: The plutonic representatives of the same magma, granite, and syenite contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly than augite. Those rocks that contain the most silica, and on crystallizing yield free quartz, form a group generally designated the "felsic" rocks. Those again that contain the least silica and most magnesia and iron, so that quartz is absent while olivine is usually abundant, form

8137-601: The position of elements in the periodic table . Based on position, the elements fall into the broad groups of alkali metals , alkaline earth metals , transition metals , semi-metals (also known as metalloids ), halogens , noble gases , lanthanides and actinides . Another useful classification scheme for geochemistry is the Goldschmidt classification , which places the elements into four main groups. Lithophiles combine easily with oxygen. These elements, which include Na , K , Si , Al , Ti , Mg and Ca , dominate in

8240-422: The preferential evaporation of the lighter O from seawater. Consequently, the surface ocean contains greater proportions of O around the subtropics and tropics where there is more evaporation, and lesser proportions of O in the mid-latitudes where it rains more. Similarly, when water vapor condenses, heavier water molecules holding O atoms tend to condense and precipitate first. The water vapor gradient heading from

8343-416: The pressure is about equal to 1 bar , approximately Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level . The Galileo probe penetrated to 22 bars. This is a small fraction of the planet, which is expected to reach pressures of over 40 Mbar. To constrain the composition in the interior, thermodynamic models are constructed using the information on temperature from infrared emission spectra and equations of state for

8446-427: The rate of removal of salt should be proportional to its concentration. For a given component C , if the input to a reservoir is a constant a and the output is kC for some constant k , then the mass balance equation is This expresses the fact that any change in mass must be balanced by changes in the input or output. On a time scale of t = 1/k , the system approaches a steady state in which C =

8549-419: The relative abundances should still be the same. This was the beginnings of the field of cosmochemistry and has contributed much of what we know about the formation of the Earth and the Solar System. In the early 20th century, Max von Laue and William L. Bragg showed that X-ray scattering could be used to determine the structures of crystals. In the 1920s and 1930s, Victor Goldschmidt and associates at

8652-475: The result of chemical reactions, phase changes , kinetic effects, or radioactivity . On the largest scale, planetary differentiation is a physical and chemical separation of a planet into chemically distinct regions. For example, the terrestrial planets formed iron-rich cores and silicate-rich mantles and crusts. In the Earth's mantle, the primary source of chemical differentiation is partial melting , particularly near mid-ocean ridges. This can occur when

8755-404: The samples for accurate measurements. Based on the simplifying assumption that the signal can be attributed to temperature change alone, with the effects of salinity and ice volume change ignored, Epstein et al. (1953) estimated that a δ O increase of 0.22‰ is equivalent to a cooling of 1 °C (or 1.8 °F). More precisely, Epstein et al. (1953) give a quadratic extrapolation for

8858-647: The science and is still adopted as the basis on which more minute subdivisions are erected. The subdivisions are by no means of equal value. The syenites, for example, and the peridotites, are far less important than the granites, diorites, and gabbros. Moreover, the effusive andesites do not always correspond to the plutonic diorites but partly also to the gabbros. As the different kinds of rock, regarded as aggregates of minerals, pass gradually into one another, transitional types are very common and are often so important as to receive special names. The quartz-syenites and nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite,

8961-410: The shell is used to indirectly determine the temperature of the surrounding water at the time the shell was formed. The ratio varies slightly depending on the temperature of the surrounding water, as well as other factors such as the water's salinity, and the volume of water locked up in ice sheets. δ O also reflects local evaporation and freshwater input, as rainwater is O-enriched—a result of

9064-464: The solar system is similar to that of many other stars, and aside from small anomalies it can be assumed to have formed from a solar nebula that had a uniform composition, and the composition of the Sun 's photosphere is similar to that of the rest of the Solar System. The composition of the photosphere is determined by fitting the absorption lines in its spectrum to models of the Sun's atmosphere. By far

9167-494: The solid is heterogeneous or a solid solution , and part of the melt is separated from the solid. The process is known as equilibrium or batch melting if the solid and melt remain in equilibrium until the moment that the melt is removed, and fractional or Rayleigh melting if it is removed continuously. Isotopic fractionation can have mass-dependent and mass-independent forms. Molecules with heavier isotopes have lower ground state energies and are therefore more stable. As

9270-468: The station's former record of −88.3 °C (−126.9 °F) on 24 August 1960. Lower temperatures occurred higher up towards the summit of the ice sheet as temperature decreases with height along the surface. Though unconfirmed, it has been reported that Vostok reached a temperature of −91 °C (−132 °F) on 28 July 1997. The warmest recorded temperature at Vostok is −14.0 °C (6.8 °F), which occurred on 5 January 1974. The coldest month

9373-422: The station's wintering complex via video link. The ceremony was also attended by President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko. Vostok Station Tractor : Heavy tractor AT-T 11, which participated in the first traverse to the south geomagnetic pole , along with a plaque to commemorate the opening of the station in 1957, has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 11) following a proposal by Russia to

9476-510: The subglacial body of fresh water was one of the largest lakes in the world—and one of some 140 subglacial lakes in Antarctica. Russian and British scientists delineated the lake in 1996 by integrating a variety of data, including airborne ice-penetrating radar imaging observations and spaceborne radar altimetry . Lake Vostok lies some 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) below the surface of the central Antarctic ice sheet and covers an area of 14,000 square kilometres (5,400 sq mi). In 2019,

9579-711: The sunniest places on Earth, despite having no sunshine at all between May and August; there are more hours of sunshine per year than even the sunniest places in South Africa , Australia and the Arabian Peninsula , where they approach those of the Sahara in Northern Africa . Vostok has the highest sunshine total for any calendar month on Earth, at an average of 708.8 hours of sunshine in December, or 22.9 hours daily. It also has

9682-623: The surface of the subglacial lake. The brittle zone is approximately between 250 and 750 m and corresponds to the Last Glacial Maximum , with the end of the Holocene climatic optimum at or near the 250-metre depth. Although the Vostok core reached a depth of 3,623 m the usable climatic information does not extend down this far. The very bottom of the core is ice refrozen from the waters of Lake Vostok and contains no climate information. The usual data sources give proxy information down to

9785-503: The surface, e.g., hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some curious instances of rocks having the same chemical composition, but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g., the hornblendite of Gran, in Norway, which contains only hornblende, has the same composition as some of the camptonites of the same locality that contain feldspar and hornblende of a different variety. In this connection, we may repeat what has been said above about

9888-420: The system is always close to a steady-state and the lowest order expansion of the mass balance equation will lead to a linear equation like Equation ( 1 ). In most systems, one or both of the input and output depend on C , resulting in feedback that tends to maintain the steady-state. If an external forcing perturbs the system, it will return to the steady-state on a time scale of 1/ k . The composition of

9991-481: The temperature, as where T is the temperature in °C (based on a least-squares fit for a range of temperature values between 9 °C and 29 °C, with a standard deviation of ±0.6 °C, and δ is δO for a calcium carbonate sample). δO can be used with ice cores to determine the temperature from when the ice was formed. Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) used measurements of δO in benthic foraminifera from 57 globally distributed deep sea sediment cores, taken as

10094-533: The tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzonites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between diorite and gabbro, and so on. Trace metals readily form complexes with major ions in the ocean, including hydroxide , carbonate , and chloride and their chemical speciation changes depending on whether the environment is oxidized or reduced . Benjamin (2002) defines complexes of metals with more than one type of ligand , other than water, as mixed-ligand-complexes. In some cases,

10197-743: The tropics to the poles gradually becomes more and more depleted of O. Snow falling in Canada has much less H 2 O than rain in Florida ; similarly, snow falling in the center of ice sheets has a lighter δ O signature than that at its margins, since heavier O precipitates first. Changes in climate that alter global patterns of evaporation and precipitation therefore change the background δ O ratio. Solid samples (organic and inorganic) for oxygen isotope analysis are usually stored in silver cups and measured with pyrolysis and mass spectrometry . Researchers need to avoid improper or prolonged storage of

10300-447: The unstable isotopes do not occur in nature. In geochemistry, stable isotopes are used to trace chemical pathways and reactions, while radioactive isotopes are primarily used to date samples. The chemical behavior of an atom – its affinity for other elements and the type of bonds it forms – is determined by the arrangement of electrons in orbitals , particularly the outermost ( valence ) electrons. These arrangements are reflected in

10403-693: Was August 1987 with a mean temperature of −75.4 °C (−103.7 °F) and the warmest month was December 1989 with a mean temperature of −28 °C (−18 °F). In addition to the extremely cold temperatures, other factors make Vostok one of the most difficult places on Earth for human habitation: Acclimatization to such conditions can take from a week to two months and is accompanied by headaches , eye twitches, ear pains, nose bleeds, perceived suffocation, sudden rises in blood pressure , loss of sleep, reduced appetite , vomiting , joint and muscle pain, arthritis, and weight loss of 3–5 kg (7–11 lb) (sometimes as high as 12 kg (26 lb)). In

10506-403: Was found to be depleted by a factor of 2 compared to solar composition and Ne by a factor of 10, a surprising result since the other noble gases and the elements C, N and S were enhanced by factors of 2 to 4 (oxygen was also depleted but this was attributed to the unusually dry region that Galileo sampled). Spectroscopic methods only penetrate the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn to depths where

10609-496: Was only detected once spacecraft were sent to the outer planets, and then only indirectly through collision-induced absorption in hydrogen molecules. Further information on Jupiter was obtained from the Galileo probe when it was sent into the atmosphere in 1995; and the final mission of the Cassini probe in 2017 was to enter the atmosphere of Saturn. In the atmosphere of Jupiter, He

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