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78-461: Death marches usually feature harsh physical labor and abuse, neglect of prisoner injury and illness, deliberate starvation and dehydration , humiliation , torture , and execution of those unable to keep up the marching pace. The march may end at a prisoner-of-war camp or internment camp , or it may continue until all those who are forced to march are dead. In 1127, during the Jin–Song Wars ,

156-535: A bosque means a river-bottom forest usually containing cottonwood trees). The march was very difficult and pushed many Navajos to their breaking point. Many began the walk exhausted and malnourished, others were not properly clothed and were not in the least prepared for such a long journey. They were also treated cruelly by the soldiers leading the march. They were never informed as to where they were going, why they were being relocated, or how long it would take to get there. One account passed through generations within

234-642: A scorched earth policy to starve the Navajo out of their traditional homeland and force them to surrender. By early 1864 thousands of Navajo began surrendering. Some Navajos refused and scattered to Navajo Mountain , the Grand Canyon , the territory of the Chiricahua Apache, and to parts of modern day Utah . Major General James H. Carleton was assigned to the New Mexico Territory in the fall of 1862, it

312-474: A band of Navajo freelancing raiding parties broke these rules, for which the entire tribe was penalized. In the eyes of Carleton, he was unsuccessful and enlisted outside resources for aid including famous mountain man Kit Carson. Carson also enlisted neighboring tribes in aiding his campaign to capture as many Navajos as he could. One tribe that proved to be most useful was the Utes. The Utes were very knowledgeable of

390-692: A central encampment near the village of Cubero. In return they would be offered government protection. Ward was instructed to warn all Navajos who refused to come that they would be treated as enemies; many came. Evans was overseeing the abandonment of Fort Lyon and had been told that the new policy was that the Navajo had to be removed to settlements or pueblos , mentioning the region of the Little Colorado west of Zuni as possibly an ideal place. In November, some Navajo started raiding again. On December 1, Canby wrote to his superior in St. Louis that "recent occurrences in

468-406: A civilian population is a war crime , a crime against humanity , and an act of genocide according to modern international criminal law. Starvation has not always been illegal according to international law; the starvation of civilians during the siege of Leningrad was ruled to be not criminal by a United States military court, and the 1949 Geneva Convention , though imposing limits, "accepted

546-506: A company of 52 citizens led by Jose Manuel Sanchez drove off a bunch of Navajo horses, but Captain Wingate followed the trail and recovered them for the Navajo, who had killed Sanchez. Another group of settlers ravaged Navajo rancherias in the vicinity of Beautiful Mountain . Also, during this time, a party of Mexicans and Pueblo Indians captured 12 Navajo in a raid, and three were brought in. On August 9, 1861, Lt. Col. Manuel Antonio Chaves of

624-407: A gunshot from where they had been a short time ago. At least 200 died during the 18-day, 300-mile (500-km) trek. Between 8,000 and 9,000 people were settled on an area of 40 square miles (104 km ), with a peak population of 9,022 by the spring of 1865. There were as many as 50 groups taking one of seven known routes. They each took a different path but were on the same trail. When returning to

702-588: A long time for starvation to be recognized as criminal because it is important to blockade tactics implemented in war, widely employed by the Western powers such as the United Kingdom and France that played a major role in the development of international law. Starvation was employed by the Allies during and after World War I, by all powers during World War II, and was not prohibited by the 1948 Genocide Convention or

780-489: A perpetrator might choose to employ starvation: "(i) extermination or genocide; (ii) control through weakening a population; (iii) gaining territorial control; (iv) flushing out a population; (v) punishment; (vi) material extraction or theft; (vii) extreme exploitation; (viii) war provisioning; and (ix) comprehensive societal transformation". There are no systematic studies of the perpetration of starvation crimes. During starvation events, most deaths occur to young children and

858-401: A protected group, starvation could be prosecuted as an act of genocide. Starvation also violates the right to food . Unlike direct killing, there is a degree of distance between the perpetrator's actions in a starvation crime and the resulting effect on the victims. This aspect makes it more difficult to prosecute. Historically, prosecutions for starvation have been rare. The judges at

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936-517: A trading post made a trip to DC to lobby for a reservation for this Band and it was granted. This Band is part Navajo and part Apache. The campaign to subdue the Navajo by the Army was supplemented by raids by New Mexican and Ute slavers who fell on isolated bands of Navajo, killing the men, taking the women and children captive, and capturing horses and livestock. During the army campaign the Ute scouts attached to

1014-399: Is that the sudden rise of xeroderma pigmentosum is directly related to widespread contamination from uranium mining. Navajo artist Richard K. Yazzie created a mural entitled Long Walk Home for the city of Gallup, New Mexico. It is located at the intersection of Third and Hill streets. It is rendered in the four "sacred colors", black, white, blue and yellow. A famous song was composed by

1092-544: Is then that he would subdue the Navajos of the region and force them on the long walk to Bosque Redondo. Upon being assigned the territory Carleton set boundaries in which the Navajos would not engage in any sort of conflict. They were prohibited from trespassing onto lands, raiding neighboring tribes, and engaging in warfare with both the Spaniards and European Americans. A majority of the Navajos were abiding by these requirements, but

1170-511: The Atlantic slave trade . Sometimes, the merchants shackled the slaves and provided insufficient food. Slaves who became too weak to walk were frequently killed or left to die. David Livingstone wrote of the East African slave trade: We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing

1248-462: The High Command trial —a United States military court convened to judge German war crimes—the judge ruled that "the cutting off every source of sustenance from without is deemed legitimate. …We might wish the law were otherwise, but we must administer it as we find it". Even such actions as killing civilians fleeing a siege was ruled to be legal during the trial. Blockade causing starvation—including

1326-847: The Japanese colonial empire . Death marches of those held in Nazi concentration camps were common in the later stages of the Holocaust as Allied forces closed in on the camps. One infamous death march occurred in January 1945, as the Soviet Red Army advanced on German-occupied Poland. Nine days before the Red Army arrived at the Auschwitz concentration camp , the Schutzstaffel marched nearly 60,000 prisoners out of

1404-910: The Long Walk of the Navajo in August 1863, all Konkow Maidu were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico and then be taken to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot. Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished. They reached Round Valley on 18 September 1863. After

1482-529: The New Mexico Volunteer Militia took command of a garrison of three companies numbering 8 officers and 206 men at Fort Fauntleroy . Chaves was later accused of holding back supplies intended for the 1,000 or more Navajos who had remained close to the fort and was maintaining only lax discipline. Horse races began on September 10 and continued into the late afternoon of September 13. Col. Chaves permitted Post Sutler A. W. Kavanaugh to supply liquor to

1560-639: The Universal Declaration on Human Rights . While the Soviet Union and Switzerland tried to limit the use of blockade in the 1949 Geneva Convention , the NATO block watered these provisions down because it wanted to preserve blockade as a weapon against communism. The final draft "accepted the legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle". The blockade of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War

1638-588: The Volhynia province. The lands were to be expropriated, and the owners deported to Siberia. The land was to be given to Russian war veterans once the war was over. In July 1915, without prior warning, 150,000 German settlers from Volhynia were arrested and shipped to internal exile in Siberia and Central Asia. (Some sources indicate that the number of deportees reached 200,000). Ukrainian peasants took over their lands. While precise figures remain elusive, estimates suggest that

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1716-468: The Yavapai Wars , 375 Yavapai perished during deportations out of 1,400 remaining Yavapai. King Leopold II sanctioned the creation of "child colonies" in his Congo Free State which had orphaned Congolese kidnapped and sent to schools operated by Catholic missionaries in which they would learn to work or be soldiers; these were the only schools funded by the state. More than 50% of the children sent to

1794-560: The Yuki people (as they came to be called) of Round Valley were forced into a difficult and unusual situation. Their traditional homeland was not completely taken over by settlers as in other parts of California. Instead, a small part of it was reserved especially for their use as well as the use of other Indians, many of whom were enemies of the Yuki. The Yuki had to share their home with strangers who spoke other languages, lived with other beliefs, and used

1872-817: The siege of Leningrad where it killed hundreds of thousands of Soviet civilians—was deemed legal by Allied judges. Long Walk of the Navajo The Long Walk of the Navajo , also called the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo ( Spanish : larga caminata del navajo), was the deportation and ethnic cleansing of the Navajo people by the United States federal government and the United States army . Navajos were forced to walk from their land in western New Mexico Territory (modern-day Arizona and New Mexico ) to Bosque Redondo in eastern New Mexico . Some 53 different forced marches occurred between August 1864 and

1950-563: The 25 concentration camps set up in the Syrian Desert. The most infamous camp was that of Der Zor , where an estimated 150,000 Armenians were killed. Grand Duke Nicolas (who was still commander-in-chief of the Western forces), after suffering serious defeats at the hands of the German army, decided to implement the decrees for the German Russians living under his army's control, principally in

2028-554: The Bosque Redondo. There was inept management of the supplies purchased for the reservation . The army spent as much as $ 1.5 million a year to feed the Native Americans. In 1868 the experiment—meant to be the first Indian reservation west of Indian Territory —was abandoned. A memorial site honoring those who were incarcerated at Bosque Redondo is located at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. The Treaty of Bosque Redondo between

2106-623: The British refused to accept their surrender and directed them to surrender to Yugoslav forces, who subjected them to death marches back to Yugoslavia, resulting in the death of 70–80,000 people. In the Pacific theatre , the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces conducted death marches of Allied POWs, including the 1942 Bataan Death March and the 1945 Sandakan Death Marches . The former forcibly transferred 60–80,000 POWs to Balanga, resulting in

2184-772: The Confederates down the Rio Grande . The United States government again determined to eliminate Navajo raiding and raids on the Navajo. James H. Carleton was ordered to relieve Canby as Commander for the New Mexico Military Department in September ;1862. Carleton ordered Colonel Christopher "Kit" Carson to proceed to Navajo territory and to receive the Navajo surrender on July 20, 1863. When no Navajos showed up, Carson and another officer entered Navajo territory in an attempt to persuade Navajos to surrender and used

2262-454: The Long Walk and were able to successfully increase the size of their reservation since then, to over 16 million acres (70,000 km ). After relating 20 pages of material concerning the Long Walk, Howard Gorman, age 73 at the time, concluded: As I have said, our ancestors were taken captive and driven to Hwéeldi for no reason at all. They were harmless people, and, even to date, we are

2340-626: The Long Walk...is critical to contemporary Navajos' sense of identity as a people". The traditional Navajo homeland spans from Arizona through New Mexico . Navajo built houses, planted crops, and raised livestock there. Groups or bands raided and traded with each other, making and breaking treaties. This included interactions between the Navajo, Spanish , Mexican , Pueblos , Apache , Comanche , Ute , and later American settlers . Any of them could be victims of these conflicts and also instigate conflicts to pursue their interests. Hostilities escalated between American settlers and Navajos following

2418-577: The Navajo country have so demoralized and broken up [the Navajo] nation that there is now no choice between their absolute extermination or their removal and colonization at points so remote...as to isolate them entirely from the inhabitants of the Territory. Aside from all considerations of humanity, the extermination of such a people will be the work of the greatest difficulty." By 1862, the Union Army had pushed

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2496-517: The Navajo lands, they reformed their group to become one; this group was ten miles (16 km) long. Some of these Navajos escaped and hid with Apaches that were running from Gen. Crook on what is known as Cimmaron Mesa southeast of present-day NM Highway 6 and I-40; later they relocated to Alamo Springs northwest of Magdalena, NM and are known as the Alamo Band of the Diné (Navajos). Nelson Anthony Field who had

2574-425: The Navajo when they were set free about their return to their homeland, Shí naashá (I am going) . A supposed remnant of the Long Walk from Bosque Redondo, a rug called Woven Sorrow, figures prominently as a valuable antique in the plot of The Shape Shifter by Tony Hillerman , published in 2006. Anne Hillerman mentioned the Long Walk in a subsequent novel in the series, Cave of Bones (2018). The story of

2652-469: The Navajos could not manufacture for themselves. The signers of the document were: W. T. Sherman (Lt. General), S. F. Tappan (Indian Peace Commissioner), Navajos Barboncito (Chief), Armijo, Delgado, Manuelito , Largo, Herrero, Chiquito, Muerte de Hombre, Hombro, Narbono, Narbono Segundo and Ganado Mucho. Those who attested the document included Theo H. Dodd (Indian Agent) and B. S. Roberts (General 3rd Cav). On June 18, 1868,

2730-473: The Navajos shows the attitude of the U.S. Army: It was said that those ancestors were on the Long Walk with their daughter, who was pregnant and about to give birth [...] the daughter got tired and weak and couldn't keep up with the others or go further because of her condition. So my ancestors asked the Army to hold up for a while and to let the woman give birth, but the soldiers wouldn't do it. They forced my people to move on, saying that they were getting behind

2808-513: The Navajos. A dispute emerged about which horse won a race. A shot rang out, followed by a fusillade. Almost immediately 200 Navajo, well-armed and mounted, advanced toward the Guard, shooting at the men. They were fired upon by the soldiers and scattered, leaving 12 dead and forty prisoners. On hearing this, General Canby demanded a report from Chaves, who did not comply. Canby sent Captain Andrew W. Evans to

2886-481: The Navajos. The Mescaleros and the Navajo had a long tradition of raiding each other; the two tribes had many disputes during their encampment. Furthermore, the initial plan was for around 5,000 people, nowhere near the 10,000 men, women, and children who eventually resided in the camp. Water and firewood were major issues from the start; the water was brackish, and the round grove of trees was quite small. Nature and humans both caused crop failures every year. The corn crop

2964-656: The Rome Statute and ratified by eleven states. Nevertheless, many experts argue that starvation in NIAC is already criminalized in international customary law , and prosecutions have already taken place. Legal scholar Tom Dannenbaum argues that blockade-induced starvation should be considered a form of torture and prohibited on this basis. According to the Rome Statute , crimes against humanity does not have an explicit provision for starvation, however, starvation would satisfy

3042-487: The Soviet Union during the 1940s; however Steven Rosefield and Norman Naimark put overall deaths closer to some 1 to 1.5 million perishing as a result of the deportations — of those deaths, the deportation of Crimean Tatars and the deportation of Chechens were recognized as genocides by Ukraine and the European Parliament respectively. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , 50,000-70,000 Palestinian Arabs from

3120-582: The Soviet Union refers to the forced transfer of various groups from the 1930s up to the 1950s ordered by Joseph Stalin and may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population (often classified as "enemies of workers"), deportations of entire nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill the ethnically cleansed territories. Soviet archives documented 390,000 deaths during kulak forced resettlement and up to 400,000 deaths of persons deported to forced settlements in

3198-503: The United States and many of the Navajo leaders was concluded at Fort Sumner on June 1, 1868. Some of the provisions included establishing a reservation, restrictions on raiding, a resident Indian Agent and agency, compulsory education for children, the supply of seeds, agricultural implements and other provisions, rights of the Navajos to be protected, establishment of railroads and forts, compensation to tribal members, and arrangements for

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3276-438: The army unit engaged in this activity and left destruction of Navajo infrastructure to the main army unit. Following the surrender of the Navajo, the Utes continued to raid the Navajo as did New Mexican slavers. A large number of slaves were taken and sold throughout the region. Like some internment camps involving several tribes, the Bosque Redondo had serious problems. About 400 Mescalero Apaches were placed there before

3354-755: The camp towards Wodzisław Śląski , where they were put on freight trains to other camps. Approximately 15,000 prisoners died on the way. The death marches were judged during the Nuremberg trials to be a crime against humanity . On the Eastern Front , death marches were amongst the forms of German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war . During the NKVD prisoner massacres in 1941, NKVD personnel led prisoners on death marches to various locations in Eastern Europe ; upon arriving to pre-designated execution sites,

3432-663: The cities of Ramle and Lod (also spelled Lydda) were forcibly expelled by Israeli forces. Lydda's residents had to walk 10-15 miles to meet up with the lines of the Arab Legion, while most Ramla residents were moved by bus. The event has come to be known as the Lydda death march . During the Korean War , in the winter of 1951, 200,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers were forcibly marched by their commanders, and 50,000 to 90,000 soldiers starved to death or died of disease during

3510-690: The deaths of 2,500–10,000 Filipino and 100–650 American POWs, while the latter caused the deaths of 2,345 Australian and British POWs, of which only 6 survived. Lieutenant-General Masaharu Homma was charged with failure to control his troops in 1945 in connection with the Bataan Death March. Both the Bataan and Sandakan death marches were judged by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to be war crimes . Population transfer in

3588-416: The deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population". Unlike murder, it excludes dolus eventualis , and according to Ventura, "the accused must act with the intent to kill on a massive scale or to systematically subject a large number of people to conditions that would lead to their death." If committed with the intent to fully or partly destroy

3666-588: The elderly, as well as pregnant and lactating mothers. Survivors can face lifelong health impairments. Starvation has been extensively used as a method of warfare throughout history and into the twenty-first century. For most of this time, it was not considered a criminal act. From the mid-nineteenth century to World War I, legal attempts to limit blockades were largely successful at preventing starvation in European wars, but not famine in colonial empires. Historians Nicholas Mulder and Boyd van Dijk argue that it took

3744-462: The end of 1866. In total, 10,000 Navajos and 500 Mescalero Apache were forced to the internment camp in Bosque Redondo. During the forced march and internment, up to 3,500 people died from starvation and disease over a four-year period. In 1868, the Navajo were allowed to return to their ancestral homeland following the Treaty of Bosque Redondo . Some anthropologists state that the "collective trauma of

3822-483: The forced relocation is the setting of the youth fiction novel The Girl Who Chased Away Sorrow , written in 1999 by Ann Turner . In the 1979 Stephen King novel The Long Walk (written under the pen name Richard Bachman ) two Hopis are among one hundred teenage boys who participate in a competitive and voluntary death march which serves as a macabre annual spectacle in a totalitarian re-imagining of America. Scott O'Dell 's Newbury Award-winning book Sing Down

3900-678: The forces of the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty besieged and sacked the Imperial palaces in Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng ), the capital of the Han -led Song dynasty . The Jin forces captured the Song ruler, Emperor Qinzong , along with his father, the retired Emperor Huizong , as well as many members of the imperial family and officials of the Song imperial court. According to The Accounts of Jingkang , Jin troops looted

3978-443: The fort and almost took control. Truces and treaties committed the Army to protect the Navajo. However, the Army allowed other Native American tribes and Mexicans to steal livestock and enslave Navajos. A truce was signed on February 15, 1861. They were again promised protection, but as part of the truce, two of the Navajo's four sacred mountains were taken from them, as well as about one-third of their traditional land. In March,

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4056-464: The fort, named Fort Lyon on September 25, who took command. Manuel Chaves, suspended from command, was confined to Albuquerque pending court-martial. (The charges were dismissed after two months.) In February 1861, Chaves took the field with 400 militia and ransacked Navajo land, without federal authority. With Confederate troops moving into southern New Mexico, Canby sent Agent John Ward into Navajo lands to persuade any who might be friendly to move to

4134-588: The freezing temperature of the winter months. The "Long Walk" started at the beginning of spring 1864. Bands of Navajo led by the Army were relocated from their traditional lands in eastern Arizona Territory and western New Mexico Territory to Fort Sumner (in an area called the Bosque Redondo or Hwéeldi by the Navajo) in the Pecos River valley (Bosque Redondo is Spanish for "round forest"—in New Mexican Spanish

4212-535: The imperial library and palace. Jin troops also abducted all the female servants and imperial musicians. The imperial family was abducted and their residences were looted. Facing the prospect of captivity and enslavement by the Jurchens, numerous palace women chose to take their own lives. The remaining captives, over 14,000 people, were forced to march alongside the seized assets towards the Jin capital. Their entourage – almost all

4290-421: The land and its products differently. Indians came to Round Valley as they did to other reservations– by force. The word "drive", widely used at the time, is descriptive of the practice of "rounding up" Indians and "driving" them like cattle to the reservation where they were "corralled" by high picket fences. Such drives took place in all weathers and seasons, and the elderly and sick often did not survive. During

4368-541: The lands of the Navajos and were very familiar with Navajo strongholds as well. Carson launched his full-scale assault on the Navajo population in January 1864. He destroyed everything in his path, eradicating the way of life of the Navajo people. Hogans were burned to the ground, livestock was killed off, and irrigated fields were destroyed. Navajos who surrendered were taken to Fort Canby and those who resisted were murdered. Some Navajos were able to escape Carson's campaign but were soon forced to surrender due to starvation and

4446-635: The last days of World War II and after), a total of 280,000 Croats , were involved in the Independent State of Croatia evacuation to Austria . Mostly Ustaše and the Croatian Home Guard , but also civilians and refugees, tried to flee the Yugoslav Partisans and the Red Army , and marched northwards through Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia and Slovenia to Allied-occupied Austria . However,

4524-647: The legal forum, prosecutors might need to prove a specific purpose of the starvation or that the victims were under the control of the perpetrator. If the starvation results in death, murder is also a crime against humanity. In the Karadžić case , the ICTY convicted Radovan Karadžić of the crime against humanity of murder for the starvation of prisoners. For murder to be charged, the accused's act or omission must have been made with intent to kill, inflict grievous bodily harm, or knowledge that death would occur. The crime against humanity of extermination includes "the intentional infliction of conditions of life, inter alia

4602-450: The legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle". Historically, the development of laws against starvation has been hampered by the Western powers who wish to use blockades against their enemies; however, it was banned in 1977 by Protocol I and Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions and criminalized by the Rome Statute . Prosecutions for starvation have been rare. Bridget Conley and Alex de Waal enumerate several reasons why

4680-622: The march or in the training camps. This incident is known as the National Defense Corps incident . During the Korean War , prisoners who were held by the North Koreans underwent what became known as the "Tiger Death March". The march occurred while North Korea was being overrun by United Nations forces. As North Korean forces retreated to the Yalu River on the border with China , they evacuated their prisoners with them. On 31 October 1950, some 845 prisoners, including about eighty non-combatants, left Manpo and went upriver, arriving in Chunggang on 8 November 1950. A year later, fewer than 300 of

4758-455: The militia escorting them, with only a few thousand surviving. The Armenian genocide resulted in the death of up to 1,500,000 people from 1915 to 1918. Under the cover of World War I , the Young Turks sought to cleanse Turkey of its Armenian population. As a result, much of the Armenian population was exiled from large parts of Western Armenia and forced to march to the Syrian Desert. Many were raped , tortured, and killed on their way to

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4836-449: The ministers and generals of the Northern Song dynasty – suffered from illness, dehydration, and exhaustion, and many never made it. Upon arrival, each person had to go through a ritual where the person had to be naked and wearing only sheep skins. Forced marches were utilized against slaves who were bought or captured by slave traders in Africa . They were shipped to other lands as part of the East African slave trade with Zanzibar and

4914-512: The mortality rate associated with these deportations ranged from 30% to 50%, translating to a death toll between 63,000 and 100,000 individuals. In the eastern part of Russian Turkestan, after the suppression of the Urkun uprising against the Russian Empire tens of thousands of surviving Kyrgyz and Kazakhs fled toward China. In the Tien-Shan mountains, thousands died in mountain passes over 3,000 meters high. During World War II , death marches of POWs occurred in both German-occupied Europe and

4992-409: The once-scattered bands of people who call themselves Diné , set off together on the return journey, the "Long Walk" home. This is one of the few instances where the U.S. government permitted a tribe to return to their traditional boundaries. The Navajo were granted 3.5 million acres (14,000 km ) of land inside their four sacred mountains. The Navajo also became a more cohesive tribe after

5070-402: The others. The soldier told the parents that they had to leave their daughters behind. "Your daughter is not going to survive, anyway; sooner or later she is going to die," they said in their own language. "Go ahead," the daughter said to her parents, "things might come out all right with me," But the poor thing was mistaken, my grandparents used to say. Not long after they had moved on, they heard

5148-461: The price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. As part of Native American removal in the United States, approximately 6,000 Choctaw were forced to leave Mississippi and move to the newly forming Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma) in 1831. Only about 4,000 Choctaw arrived in 1832. In 1836, after the Creek War , the United States Army deported 2,500 Muskogee from Alabama in chains as prisoners of war. The rest of

5226-487: The prisoners were still alive. The march was named after the brutal North Korean colonel who presided over it, his nickname was "The Tiger". Among the prisoners was George Blake , an MI6 officer who had been stationed in Seoul . While he was being held as a prisoner, he became a KGB double agent. The Khmer Rouge marked the beginning of their rule with the forced evacuation of various cities including Phnom Penh , Cambodia . Starvation (crime) Starvation of

5304-440: The requirements of some of the enumerated crimes against humanity. One of these provisions is "other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health". This provision does not require deliberate intent to cause starvation, only "knowledge of the likelihood of the relevant injury". Starvation could also be prosecuted as torture, although depending on

5382-422: The return of Navajos to the reservation established by the treaty. The Navajo agreed for ten years to send their children to school and the U.S. government agreed to establish schools with teachers for every thirty Navajo children. The U.S. government also promised for ten years to give to the Navajos annually: clothing, goods, and other raw materials, not exceeding the value of five dollars per person, that

5460-494: The same, holding no harm for anybody...Many Navajos who know our history and the story of Hwéeldi say the same. Not all the Navajo were captured and forced to take the long walk. Geneticists believe that a genetic bottleneck developed among the small, isolated, uncaptured groups. This produced the consequence of otherwise rare genetic diseases, for example xeroderma pigmentosum , stemming from recessive genes achieving greater dominance. An alternative put forth by some Navajo

5538-409: The scalping of respected Navajo leader Narbona in 1849. In August 1851, Colonel Edwin Vose Sumner established Fort Defiance for the U.S. government (near present-day Window Rock, Arizona ) and Fort Wingate (originally Fort Fauntleroy near Gallup, New Mexico ). Prior to the Long Walk, treaties were signed in 1849, 1858, and 1861. Friction between invading American settlers and Navajo groups

5616-471: The schools died of disease, and thousands more died in the forced marches into the colonies. In one such march, 108 boys were sent over to a mission school and only 62 survived, eight of whom died a week later. During the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) , 700,000 to 800,000 Hui Muslims from Shaanxi were deported to Gansu, in a process in which most were killed along the way from thirst, starvation, and massacres by

5694-479: The survival of the civilian population" are protected and attacks against them are prohibited. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court includes starvation as a war crime when committed within an international armed conflict . In 2018, Switzerland proposed extending this provision to non-international armed conflict (NIAC). This proposal was accepted by all of the states parties to

5772-723: The survivors were summarily executed . After the Battle of Stalingrad in February 1943, numerous German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union were subject to death marches; after enduring a period of captivity near Stalingrad, they were sent by the Soviet authorities on a "death march across the frozen steppe" to labor camps elsewhere in the Soviet Union. The Brno death march during the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia occurred in May 1945. The Bleiburg repatriations also occurred in May 1945 (during

5850-582: The tribe (12,000) followed, deported by the Army. Upon arrival to Indian Territory, 3,500 died of infection. In 1838, the Cherokee nation was forced by order of President Andrew Jackson to march westward towards Indian Territory. This march became known as the Trail of Tears . An estimated 4,000 men, women, and children died during relocation. When the Round Valley Indian Reservation was established,

5928-480: Was infested with army worms and failed repeatedly. The Pecos River flooded and washed out the head gates of the irrigation system. In 1865 Navajo began leaving. By 1867 the remaining Navajo refused to plant a crop. Comanches raided them frequently, and they raided the Comanche, once stealing over 1,000 horses. The non-Indian settlers also suffered from the raiding parties who were trying to feed their starving people on

6006-451: Was the most well-known example during the next decades of starvation employed during a war. The International Committee of the Red Cross recognized that the failure of its relief effort was due in part to the blockade law endorsed by the Western powers, and increased its efforts to secure stronger legal protections for civilians. According to the 1977 Protocol II , "objects indispensable to

6084-555: Was widespread between 1846 and 1863. Manuelito and Barboncito reminded the Navajo that the US Army was sending troops to wage war, that it had flogged a Navajo messenger, and that it opened fire on tribal headsman “Agua Chiquito”, during talks for peace. They argued that the army had refused to bring in feed for their animals at Ft. Defiance, took over the prime grazing land, and killed Manuelito's livestock there. On April 30, 1860, Manuelito and Barboncito with 1,000 Navajo warriors attacked

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