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107-762: Dahaka has several meanings: Zahhak (Aži Dahāka), a dragon-king in Zoroastrian Persian mythology The Dahaka, an enemy in the Prince of Persia: Warrior Within video game. Dahaka, a boss in Final Fantasy XIII Azi Dahaka, a boss in Final Fantasy XI Dehaka, a primal zerg in StarCraft II: Heart of the Swarm Azhi Dehaaka,

214-478: A Persian word for " dragon " that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka . Aži Dahāka is the most significant and long-lasting of the aži s of the Avesta , the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism . He is described as a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads , cunning, strong, and demonic. In other respects Aži Dahāka has human qualities, and is never a mere animal. Aži Dahāka appears in several of

321-439: A belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Hinduism . Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, who are typically organised into tiers and spheres of influence. The Ahura are a class of divine beings "inherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In

428-491: A bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies. Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan , a purgatorial realm mentioned in the 9th century work Dadestan-i Denig . The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food,

535-651: A class of seven divine entities that represent various aspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness, which is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born from Aka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed by Middle Persian literature into Ahriman ( 𐭠𐭧𐭫𐭬𐭭𐭩 ), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary. Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have

642-462: A combination of all three. Zoroastrianism shaped Iranian culture and history , while scholars differ on whether it significantly influenced ancient Western philosophy and the Abrahamic religions , or gradually reconciled with other religions and traditions, such as Christianity and Islam . Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of the ancient Iranian religion , Zoroastrianism may have roots in

749-521: A concept, it also contains a wide range of other meanings; though generally signifying (or used as an epithet of) a divinity. The origins of Yazata are varied, with many also being featured as gods in Hinduism , or other Iranian religions. In modern Zoroastrianism, the Yazata are considered holy emanations of the creator, always devoted to him and obey the will of Ahura Mazda . While subject to repression by

856-528: A great sinner, who committed incest with her son. In the Avesta, Aži Dahāka is said to have lived in the inaccessible fortress of Kuuirinta in the land of Baβri, where he worshipped the yazatas Arədvī Sūrā ( Anāhitā ), divinity of the rivers, and Vayu divinity of the storm-wind. Based on the similarity between Baβri and Old Persian Bābiru ( Babylon ), later Zoroastrians localized Aži Dahāka in Mesopotamia, though

963-407: A large crowd follows. Zahhāk wakes and shouts so loudly that the pillars of the palace shake. Following Arnavāz's counsel, Zahhāk summons wise men and scholars to interpret his dream. His hesitant counsellors remain silent until the most fearless of the men reports that the dream is a vision of the end of Zahhāk's reign at the hands of Fereydun , the young man with the mace. Zahhāk is thrilled to learn

1070-592: A savior to discontented Iranians seeking a new ruler. Collecting a great army, Zahhāk hunts Jamshid for many years before finally capturing him. Zahhāk executes Jamshid by sawing him in half and ascends to Jamshid's prior throne. Among his slaves are two of Jamshid's daughters, Arnavāz and Shahrnāz (the Avestan Arənavāci and Savaŋhavāci). Each day, Zahhāk's agents seize two men and execute them so that their brains can feed Zahhāk's snakes. Two men, called Armayel and Garmayel, seek to rescue people from being killed from

1177-417: A significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it. The ultimate purpose in the life of a practicing Zoroastrian is to become an ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. The core teachings of Zoroastrianism include: According to

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1284-497: A smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation. In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology , a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken, and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka , will break free and terrorize

1391-405: A two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and daily illuminated world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night. According to Zoroastrian cosmology , in articulating

1498-542: A void beast in Under Night In-Birth Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dahaka . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dahaka&oldid=1060910659 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

1605-486: Is Angra Mainyu ( 𐬀𐬢𐬭𐬀⸱𐬨𐬀𐬌𐬥𐬌𐬌𐬎 ), who is personified as a destructive spirit and the adversary of all things that are good. As such, the Zoroastrian religion combines a dualistic cosmology of good and evil with an eschatological outlook predicting the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazda over evil . Opinions vary among scholars as to whether Zoroastrianism is monotheistic , polytheistic , henotheistic , or

1712-530: Is Behdin , meaning "of the good religion", deriving from beh < Middle Persian weh 'good' + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā ". In the Zoroastrian liturgy , this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles of osta , osti , ervad (hirbod), mobed and dastur . The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship

1819-613: Is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra . He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati . The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna , which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna , meaning "worship, devotion". In English , an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today

1926-404: Is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to participate actively in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to its incarnation at the birth of the child, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. Prior to the splitting off of the urvan , the fravashi participates in

2033-429: Is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama , who is more commonly referred to by the name Zoroaster ( Greek : Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris ). Among the world's oldest organized faiths, its adherents exalt an uncreated , benevolent , and all-wise deity known as Ahura Mazda ( 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬋 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬃 ), who is hailed as the supreme being of the universe. Opposed to Ahura Mazda

2140-466: Is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by

2247-511: Is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici . The term Mazdaism ( / ˈ m æ z d ə . ɪ z əm / ) is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system. Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa, "like

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2354-555: Is correct. The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas , Yasna , Visperad and the Vendidad , of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith. Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called

2461-458: Is described as a sorcerer who ruled with the aid of demons, the daevas (divs). The Avesta identifies the person who finally disposed of Aži Dahāka as Θraētaona son of Aθβiya , in Middle Persian called Frēdōn. The Avesta has little to say about the nature of Θraētaona's defeat of Aži Dahāka, other than that it enabled him to liberate Arənavāci and Savaŋhavāci, the two most beautiful women in

2568-566: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Zahhak Aži (nominative ažiš ) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon". It is cognate to the Vedic Sanskrit word ahi , "snake", and without a sinister implication. The original meaning of dahāka is uncertain. Among the meanings suggested are "stinging" (source uncertain), "burning" (cf. Sanskrit dahana ), "man" or "manlike" (cf. Khotanese daha ), "huge" or "foreign" (cf.

2675-423: Is easily influenced by his counselors. Ahriman therefore chooses him as a tool to sow disorder and chaos. When Zahhāk is a young man, Ahriman first appears to him as a glib, flattering companion, and by degrees convinces him to kill his own father and inherit his kingdom, treasures and army. Zahhāk digs a deep pit covered over with leaves in a path to a garden where Merdās would pray each morning; Merdās falls in and

2782-540: Is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within. Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by

2889-433: Is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. Asha, is the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda. It is the cosmic order and is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj , falsehood and disorder, that comes from Angra Mainyu. The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in

2996-488: Is in conflict with the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, the representation of evil, darkness, and deceit. Angru Mainyu's goal is to tempt humans away from Ahura Mazda. Notably, Angra Mainyu is not a creation of Ahura Mazda but an independent entity. The belief in Ahura Mazda, the "Lord of Wisdom" who is considered an all-encompassing Deity and the only existing one, is the foundation of Zoroastrianism. Mitra , also called Mithra ,

3103-618: Is killed. Zahhāk thus ascends to the throne. Ahriman then presents himself to Zahhāk as a marvelous cook. After he presents Zahhāk with many days of sumptuous feasts (introducing meat to the formerly vegetarian human cuisine), Zahhāk is willing to give Ahriman whatever he wants. Ahriman merely asks to kiss Zahhāk on his two shoulders, and Zahhāk permits this. Ahriman places his lips upon Zahhāk's shoulders and suddenly disappears. At once, two black snakes grow from Zahhāk's shoulders. They cannot be surgically removed, as another snake grows to replace one that has been severed. Ahriman appears to Zahhāk in

3210-491: Is limited to natural forces held as emanations of asha by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism. Although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and those who believe that Zoroaster was vegetarian. Zoroastrianism is not entirely uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having

3317-402: Is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness). Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj , which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as

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3424-462: Is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will , and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts. On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, whereupon the experiences of life in

3531-402: Is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism. Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements. Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having

3638-500: Is now living as a young man. Fereydun agrees to lead the people against Zahhāk and has a mace made for him with a head like that of an ox. Fereydun goes forth to fight against Zahhāk, who has already left his capital, which falls to Fereydun with small resistance. Fereydun frees all of Zahhāk's prisoners, including Arnavāz and Shahrnāz. Kondrow, Zahhāk's treasurer, pretends to submit to Fereydun, but discreetly escapes to Zahhāk and reports to him what has happened. Zahhāk initially dismisses

3745-448: Is omniscient but not omnipotent. Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu , (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"), the destructive spirit/mentality, existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as

3852-600: Is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran . The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan . The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with

3959-617: The Denkart , Tansar-nāma , Ardāy Wirāz Nāmag , Bundahsin , Zand-i Wahman yasn or the transmitted oral tradition. As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax (identified with a Vologases of the Arsacid dynasty ), an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire , Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest , to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate

4066-503: The Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident. Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu , at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in

4173-524: The Avestan period of the 2nd millennium BCE, but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with the Achaemenid Empire , which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with the Sasanian Empire , which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings. In

4280-800: The Dahae people and the Vedic dasas ). In Persian mythology, Dahāka is treated as a proper noun, while the form Zahhāk , which appears in the Shāhnāme , was created through the influence of the unrelated Arabic word ḍaḥḥāk (ضَحَّاك) meaning "one who laughs". The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian aždahāg are the source of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed Až , Old Armenian mythological figure Aždahak , Modern Persian ' aždehâ / aždahâ ', ( اژدها ) Tajik Persian ' aždaho', ( аждаҳо ) Urdu ' aždahā' ( اژدہا ), as well as

4387-726: The Islamic Caliphate , the Yazata were often framed as " angels " to counter accusation of polytheism ( shirk ). According to the Avesta The Yazata assist Ahura Mazda in his battle against the evil spirit, and are hypostases of moral or physical aspects of creation. The yazatas collectively are "the good powers under Ahura Mazda", who is "the greatest of the yazatas". Yazatas are further divided into Amesha Spentas, their "ham-kar" or "Collaborators" who are Lower Ranking divinities, and also certain healing plants, primordial creatures,

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4494-465: The Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"), being resurrected to immortality. Zoroastrian cosmography , which refers to the description of the structure of the cosmos in Zoroastrian literature and theology, involves a primary division of the cosmos into heaven and earth. The heaven is composed of three parts: the lower-most part, which is where the fixed stars may be found; the middle part, where

4601-537: The Kurdish ejdîha ( ئەژدیها ) which usually mean "dragon". The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form " ažhdaja " and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in Balkanic and Slavic languages. Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples . The Ažhdarchid group of pterosaurs are named from

4708-526: The Rig Veda , asura denotes the "older gods", such as the "Father Asura", Varuna , and Mitra , who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos." Ahura Mazda , also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmz, is the creator deity and the supreme god in Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda stands for the dual deity Mitrāˊ-Váruṇā of the Hindu holy book known as

4815-541: The Rigveda . According to scholars, Ahura Mazda is an uncreated, omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God who has created the spiritual and material existences out of infinite light, and maintains the cosmic law of Asha. He is the first and most invoked spirit in Yasna , and is unrivaled, has no equals and presides over all creation. In Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the only true God, and the representation of goodness, light, and truth. He

4922-689: The myths of many Indo-European peoples, including those of the Indo-Iranians, that is, the common ancestors of both the Iranians and Vedic Indians . The most obvious point of comparison is that in Vedic Sanskrit ahi is a cognate of Avestan aži . However, In Vedic tradition, the only dragon of importance is Vrtra , but "there is no Iranian tradition of a dragon such as Indian Vrtra" (Boyce, 1975:91-92). Moreover, while Iranian tradition has numerous dragons, all of which are malevolent, Vedic tradition has only one other dragon besides Vṛtra - ahi budhnya ,

5029-424: The "world's first proponent of ecology." The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire, and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: "It is not surprising that Mazdaism...is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13)." However, this particular assertion

5136-579: The 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their " dualism " and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in

5243-460: The 7th century CE, the rise of Islam and the ensuing Muslim conquest of Iran marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims in the nascent Rashidun Caliphate prompted much of the community to migrate to the Indian subcontinent , where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today's Parsis . Once numbering in the millions,

5350-509: The Amesha Spenta and with the help of "other ahuras ". These divine beings called Amesha Spentas , support him and are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality. Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through these bounteous/holy divinities. In addition to these, He is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas , meaning "worthy of worship." Each Yazata

5457-422: The Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples. The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and

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5564-631: The Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals. High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobads with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta . A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote /Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during

5671-471: The Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component are the Gathas , purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of a major section of the Avesta called the Yasna , which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of

5778-458: The Avestan myths and is mentioned parenthetically in many more places in Zoroastrian literature. In a post-Avestan Zoroastrian text, the Dēnkard , Aži Dahāka is possessed of all possible sins and evil counsels, the opposite of the good king Jam (or Jamshid ). The name Dahāg (Dahāka) is punningly interpreted as meaning "having ten ( dah ) sins". His mother is Wadag (or Ōdag), herself described as

5885-505: The Daena. Traditionally, the manthras (similar to the Hindu sacred utterance mantra ) prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil. Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha , believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed

5992-473: The Earth and which was the first in a chain of 2,244 mountains which, together, encircled the Earth. Although the planets are not described in early Zoroastrian sources, they entered Zoroastrian thought in the Middle Persian period: they were demonized and took on the names Anāhīd (Pahlavi for Venus ), Tīr ( Mercury ), Wahrām ( Mars ), Ohrmazd ( Jupiter ), and Kēwān ( Saturn ). Individual judgment at death

6099-467: The Yazatas Mithra , Sraosha , and Rashnu , where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down

6206-404: The Zoroastrian creation myth , there is one universal, transcendent , all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity Ahura Mazda, or the "Wise Lord" ( Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan ). Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also proclaims that Ahura Mazda

6313-450: The advice of an angel, he binds Zahhāk and imprisons him in a cave underneath Mount Damāvand. Fereydun binds Zahhāk with a lion's pelt tied to great nails fixed into the walls of the cavern, where Zahhāk will remain until the end of the world. " Zahhak Castle " is the name of an ancient ruin in Hashtrud , East Azerbaijan Province , Iran which according to various experts, was inhabited from

6420-492: The antithesis of existence through choice. In this schema of asha versus druj , mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counter action . Throughout the Gathas , Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism

6527-420: The basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony , water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters (re. which conception see Apam Napat ). A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj . Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute

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6634-704: The benevolent "dragon of the deep". In the Vedas, gods battle dragons, but in Iranian tradition, this is a function of mortal heroes. Thus, although it seems clear that dragon-slaying heroes (and gods in the case of the Vedas) "were a part of Indo-Iranian tradition and folklore, it is also apparent that Iran and India developed distinct myths early." (Skjaervø, 1989:192) Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism ( Persian : دین زرتشتی Dīn-e Zartoshtī ), also called Mazdayasnā ( Avestan : 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬯𐬥𐬀 ) or Beh-dīn ( بهدین ),

6741-453: The choice between Asha (truth, cosmic order), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, and Druj (falsehood, deceit), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy. Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts ( hwnata ), good words, ( hakhta ) and good deeds ( hvarshta ), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies. Many of

6848-427: The conflict. The main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu , the creative spirit/mentality. Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. He created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual ( menog ) and 3,000 years later, the physical ( getig ). Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard , the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata ,

6955-424: The current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire. The Avesta was "composed at different times, providing a series of snapshots of the religion that allow historians to see how it changed over time". According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa . Here, two copies were created, one which

7062-517: The death of Jam ī Xšēd ( Jamshid ), Dahāg gained kingly rule. Another late Zoroastrian text, the Mēnog ī xrad , says this was ultimately good, because if Dahāg had not become king, the rule would have been taken by the immortal demon Xešm ( Aēšma ), and so evil would have ruled upon the earth until the end of the world. Dahāg is said to have ruled for a thousand years, starting from 100 years after Jam lost his Khvarenah , his royal glory (see Jamshid ). He

7169-527: The domain of the moon is located, and the upper part, which is the domain of the sun and unreachable by Ahirman. Further above the highest level of the heaven/sky includes regions described as the Endless Lights, as well as the Thrones of Amahraspandān and Ohrmazd. Although this is the basic framework which occurs in Avestan texts, later Zoroastrian literature would elaborate on this picture by further subdividing

7276-420: The druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path. There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity, and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of both men and women. Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate

7383-664: The five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar , which can differ from community to community. Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras , are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil. Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi , scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which

7490-448: The focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra , Aredvi Sura Anahita , Verethragna and Tishtrya , alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within

7597-409: The form of a skilled physician. He counsels Zahhāk that attempting to remove the snakes is fruitless, and that the only means of soothing the snakes and preventing them from killing him is to sate their hunger by supplying them with a stew made from two human brains every day. At this time, Jamshid , the ruler of the world, becomes arrogant and loses his divine right to rule. Zahhāk presents himself as

7704-479: The fravashis of the dead, and certain prayers that are themselves considered holy. The Amesha Spentas and their "ham-kar" or "collaborator" Yazatas are as follows: In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha. In the Gathas , the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged

7811-544: The gods Mithra and Anahita . Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism". Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures. In

7918-446: The good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent , in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to

8025-401: The highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations ( Amesha Spenta ) and the other ahuras ( Yazata ) that support Ahura Mazda. Daena ( din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in

8132-474: The identification is open to doubt. Aži Dahāka asked these two yazatas for power to depopulate the world. Being representatives of the Good, they refused. In one Avestan text, Aži Dahāka has a brother named Spitiyura. Together they attack the hero Yima ( Jamshid ) and cut him in half with a saw, but are then beaten back by the yazata Ātar , the divine spirit of fire. According to the post-Avestan texts, following

8239-438: The identity of his enemy, and orders his agents to search the entire country for Fereydun and capture him. The agents learn that Fereydun is a boy being nourished on the milk of the marvelous cow Barmāyeh. The spies trace Barmāyeh to the highland meadows where it grazes, but Fereydun and his mother have already fled before them. The agents kill the cow, but are forced to return to Zahhāk with their mission unfulfilled. Zahhāk lives

8346-596: The impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both. Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual ( menog ) and physical ( getig ). Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been

8453-438: The later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual. After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kushti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though reformist Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers. Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray

8560-474: The legend is retold with the main character given the name of Zahhāk and changed from a supernatural monster into an evil human being. According to Ferdowsi , Zahhāk was born as the son of a ruler named Merdās ( Persian : مرداس ). Because of his Arab lineage, he is sometimes called Zahhāk-e Tāzī ( Persian : ضحاکِ تازی ), meaning "Zahhāk the Tayyi ". He is handsome and clever, but has no stability of character and

8667-399: The life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path. All physical creation ( getig )

8774-403: The like. Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine , Haoma , mang , and other ritual aids. In Zoroastrianism, water ( aban ) and fire ( atar ) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered

8881-452: The lowest part of heaven to achieve a total of six or seven layers. The Earth itself was described as possessing three primary mountains: Mount Hukairiia, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the star Sadwēs; Mount Haraitī, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the sun and the moon, and the greatest of them all, the Harā Bərəz whose peak was located at the center of

8988-470: The maintenance of creation led by Ahura Mazda. During the life of a given individual, the fravashi acts as a source of inspiration to perform good actions and as a spiritual protector. The fravashis of ancestors cultural, spiritual, and heroic, associated with illustrious bloodlines, are venerated and can be called upon to aid the living. The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words

9095-442: The material world are collected for use in the continuing battle for good in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation ; albeit Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India, among other currently non-traditional opinions, believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism. Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as

9202-499: The matter, but he is incensed to learn that Fereydun has seated Jamshid's daughters on thrones beside him like his queens, and immediately hastens back to his city to attack Fereydun. Zahhāk finds his capital held strongly against him, and his army is in peril from the defense of the city. Seeing that he cannot reduce the city, he sneaks into his own palace as a spy and attempts to assassinate Arnavāz and Shahrnāz. Fereydun strikes Zahhāk down with his ox-headed mace, but does not kill him; on

9309-520: The mythical Mt. Damāvand (later identified with Damāvand ). The Middle Persian sources also prophesy that at the end of the world, Dahāg will at last burst his bonds and ravage the world, consuming one in three humans and livestock. Kirsāsp , the ancient hero who had killed the Az ī Srūwar, returns to life to kill Dahāg. In Ferdowsi 's epic poem, the Shāhnāmah , written c. 1000 AD and part of Iranian folklore,

9416-469: The natural world—the ahura and the daeva ; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through the Amesha Spenta ,

9523-534: The next few years in fear and anxiety of Fereydun, and thus writes a document testifying to the virtue and righteousness of his kingdom that would be certified by the kingdom's elders and social elite, in the hope that his enemy would be convinced against exacting vengeance. Much of the summoned assembly indulge the testimony out of fear for their lives. However, a blacksmith named Kāva (Kaveh) speaks out in anger for his children having been murdered to feed Zahhāk's snakes, and for his final remaining son being sentenced to

9630-457: The practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water ( aban ). Fire ( atar ) is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself , serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known as fire temples . The name Zoroaster ( Ζωροάστηρ )

9737-403: The primordial bovine. While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas , and noxious creatures ( khrafstar ) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of

9844-520: The relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity . The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to

9951-702: The rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the Old Avesta does not teach monotheism". By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. Zoroastrians treat Ahura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as Yazatas, who share some similarities with the angels in Abrahamic religions. These yazatas ("good agents") include Anahita , Sraosha , Mithra , Rashnu , and Tishtrya . Historian Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially

10058-536: The same fate. Zahhāk orders for Kāva's son to be released in a bid to coerce Kāva into certifying the document, but Kāva tears up the document, leaves the court, and creates a flag out of his blacksmith's apron as a standard of rebellion – the Kāviyāni Banner , derafsh-e Kāviyānī (درفش کاویانی). Kāva proclaims himself in support of Fereydun as ruler, and rallies a crowd to follow him to the Alborz mountains, where Fereydun

10165-517: The scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks. Under Shapur II , Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I , the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi. The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature

10272-488: The second millennia BC until the Timurid -era. First excavated in the 19th century by British archeologists, Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization has been studying the structure in 6 phases. Besides Aži Dahāka, several other dragons and dragon-like creatures are mentioned in Zoroastrian scripture: Stories of monstrous serpents who are killed or imprisoned by heroes or divine beings may date back to prehistory and are found in

10379-461: The sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect by Mah , the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple . Humans thus struggle in

10486-567: The snakes by learning cookery and becoming Zahhāk's royal chefs. Each day, Armayel and Garmayel save one of the two men by sending him off to the mountains and faraway plains, and substitute the man's brain with that of a sheep. The saved men are the mythological progenitors of the Kurds . Zahhāk's tyranny over the world lasts for centuries. One night, Zahhāk dreams of three warriors attacking him. The youngest warrior knocks Zahhāk down with his mace, ties him up, and drags him off toward Mount Damāvand as

10593-432: The status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being reevaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia). It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism

10700-539: The virtual extinction of scavenger birds. The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna , which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma . Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad , but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism. The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in

10807-423: The work of druj . Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives. In Zoroastrian tradition, life

10914-471: The world's total Zoroastrian population is currently estimated to comprise between 100,000 and 200,000 people , with the majority of this figure residing in India (50,000–60,000), Iran (15,000–25,000), and North America (22,000). The religion is thought to be declining due to restrictions on conversion, strict endogamy , and low birth rates. The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in

11021-482: The world. According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant , will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which

11128-493: The world. Later sources, especially the Dēnkard , provide more detail. Feyredon is said to have been endowed with the divine radiance of kings ( Khvarenah , New Persian farr ) for life, and was able to defeat Dahāg, striking him with a mace. However, when he did so, vermin (snakes, insects and the like) emerged from the wounds, and the god Ormazd told him not to kill Dahāg, lest the world become infected with these creatures. Instead, Frēdōn chained Dahāg up and imprisoned him on

11235-509: Was originally an Indo-Iranian god of "covenant, agreement, treaty, alliance, promise." Mitra is considered a being worthy of worship and is "characterized by riches". The Yazata (Avestan: 𐬫𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬙𐬀) are divine beings worshiped by song and sacrifice in Zoroastrianism, in accordance with the Avesta . The word ' Yazata' is derived from 'Yazdan', the Old Persian word for 'god', and literally means "divinity worthy of worship or veneration". As

11342-453: Was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta (written on 1200 ox-hides) was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong historical evidence for this and they remain contested despite affirmations from the Zoroastrian tradition, whether it be

11449-416: Was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order ( druj ) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Christian notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept

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