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86-522: Queen Marie de' Medici, nostalgic for the gardens of her native Florence , created the Cours-la-Reine not long after she began making the Luxembourg Garden (1612–1630). At the time it was outside of Paris, on the way to Chaillot , through fields and marshes. The Queen built ornamental gates at either end of the kilometer and a half long garden and planted four rows of elm trees, with a wide lane in

172-439: A humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ), tending to Mediterranean ( Csa ). It has hot summers with moderate or light rainfall and cool, damp winters. As Florence lacks a prevailing wind, summer temperatures are higher than along the coast. Rainfall in summer is convectional , while relief rainfall dominates in the winter. Snow is rare. The highest officially recorded temperature was 42.6 °C (108.7 °F) on 26 July 1983 and

258-697: A secundogeniture of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, who were deposed for the House of Bourbon-Parma in 1801. From 1801 to 1807 Florence was the capital of the Napoleonic client state Kingdom of Etruria . The Bourbon-Parma were deposed in December 1807 when Tuscany was annexed by France . Florence was the prefecture of the French département of Arno from 1808 to the fall of Napoleon in 1814. The Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty

344-516: A Roman city, and later, after a long period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune , it was the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance . It was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe and the world from the 14th to 16th centuries. The language spoken in the city during the 14th century came to be accepted as the model for what would become

430-620: A comprehensive body of Italian political philosophy before Paolo Sarpi . Guicciardini is best known as the author of the Storia d'Italia ( History of Italy ), which provides a detailed account of politics in the Italian Peninsula between 1490 and 1534. Written during the last years of his life, this work contains the historian's observations collected over his entire lifetime and was a work intended for posterity. As Gilbert writes: "The History of Italy stands apart from all his writings because it

516-500: A diplomat and statesman. His Spanish correspondence with the Signoria reveals his power of observation and analysis, a chief quality of his mind. At the Spanish court, he learned lessons of political realism. In his letters back home, he expressed appreciation for being able to observe Spanish military methods and estimate their strength during the time of war. However, he also distrusted

602-577: A fair sector of Florence's economy. The city's income relies partially on services and commercial and cultural interests, such as annual fairs, theatrical and lyrical productions, art exhibitions, festivals and fashion shows, such as the Calcio Fiorentino . Heavy industry and machinery also take their part in providing an income. In Nuovo Pignone, numerous factories are still present, and small-to medium industrial businesses are dominant. The Florence-Prato-Pistoia industrial districts and areas were known as

688-613: A legitimization of political expediency and even malpractice. Machiavelli was a political thinker, renowned for his political handbook The Prince , which is about ruling and exercising power. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the Florentine Histories , the history of the city. In 1512, the Medici retook control of Florence with the help of Spanish and Papal troops. They were led by two cousins, Giovanni and Giulio de' Medici , both of whom would later become Popes of

774-587: A location in the Piazza del Duomo. In October 2021, Florence was shortlisted for the European Commission 's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux , Copenhagen , Dublin , Ljubljana , Palma de Mallorca and Valencia . Food and wine have long been an important staple of the economy. The Chianti region is just south of the city, and its Sangiovese grapes figure prominently not only in its Chianti Classico wines but also in many of

860-522: A mixed republican government based on the model of the Venetian constitution; despite working so often and closely with the Medici, he viewed their rule as tyrannical. Guicciardini was still able to reconcile his republican ideals and his support of the Medici: "The equality of men under a popular government is by no means contradicted if one citizen enjoys greater reputation than another, provided it proceed from

946-572: A most capable intelligence and marvelous knowledge of world affairs, yet he lacked the corresponding resolution and execution. For he was impeded not only by his timidity of spirit, which was by no means small, and by a strong reluctance to spend, but also by a certain innate irresolution and perplexity, so that he remained almost always in suspension and ambiguous when he was faced with those deciding those thing which from afar he had many times foreseen, considered, and almost revealed." Moreover, what sets Guicciardini apart from other historians of his time

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1032-689: A position in the new ruling group. Guicciardini eventually returned home to Florence, where he took up his law practice again; in 1514, he served as a member of the Otto di Balìa, who controlled internal security, and in 1515, he served on the Signoria, the highest Florentine magistracy. In 1513, Giovanni de' Medici, the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent , became Pope Leo X and brought Florence under papal control, which provided opportunities for Florentines to enter papal service, as did Francesco in 1515. Leo X made him governor of Reggio in 1516 and Modena in 1517. This

1118-523: A priest out of greed for wealth or great position." Thus, the ambitious Guicciardini once again turned his attention to law. At 23, he was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to teach legal studies at the Florentine Studio. In 1508, Guicciardini married Maria Salviati , the daughter of Alamanno Salviati, cementing an oligarchical alliance with the powerful Florentine family. In the same year, he wrote

1204-493: A programme of spraying church steps with water to prevent tourists from using such areas as picnic spots. While he values the benefits of tourism, he claims that there has been "an increase among those who sit down on church steps, eat their food and leave rubbish strewn on them", he explained. To boost the sale of traditional foods, the mayor had introduced legislation (enacted in 2016) that requires restaurants to use typical Tuscan products and rejected McDonald's application to open

1290-552: A rebellious imperial army, which turned toward Rome instead. Less than two weeks later came the news of the Sack of Rome and the imprisonment of Clement in the Castel Sant'Angelo . Guicciardini served three popes over a period of twenty years, and perhaps because of his experiences, he was highly critical of the papacy: "I don't know anyone who dislikes the ambition, the avarice, and the sensuality of priests more than I do.... Nevertheless,

1376-443: A result. In 2015, Mayor Dario Nardella expressed concern over visitors who arrive on buses, stay only a few hours, spend little money but contribute significantly to overcrowding. "No museum visit, just a photo from the square, the bus back and then on to Venice ... We don't want tourists like that", he said. Some tourists are less than respectful of the city's cultural heritage, according to Nardella. In June 2017, he instituted

1462-431: A vast patronage network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the gente nuova (new people). The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their ascendancy. Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero , who was, soon after, succeeded by Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo in 1469. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli . Lorenzo

1548-508: Is a major production and commercial centre in Italy, where the Florentine industrial complexes in the suburbs produce all sorts of goods, from furniture, rubber goods, chemicals, and food. Traditional and local products, such as antiques, handicrafts, glassware, leatherwork, art reproductions, jewellery, souvenirs, elaborate metal and iron-work, shoes, accessories and high fashion clothes also occupy

1634-465: Is his understanding of historical context. His approach was already evident in his early work The History of Florence (1509): "The young historian was already doubtlessly aware of the meaning of historical perspective; the same facts acquiring different weight in different contexts, a sense of proportion was called for." In the words of one of Guicciardini's severest critics, Francesco de Sanctis : "If we consider intellectual power [the Storia d'Italia ]

1720-465: Is particularly strong, with world-renowned museums such as the Uffizi selling over 1.93 million tickets in 2014. The city's convention centre facilities were restructured during the 1990s and host exhibitions, conferences, meetings, social forums, concerts and other events. In 2016, Florence had 20,588 hotel rooms in 570 facilities. International visitors use 75% of the rooms; some 18% of those were from

1806-416: Is the most important work that has issued from an Italian mind." Guicciardini was friends with Niccolò Machiavelli ; the two maintained a lively correspondence until the latter's death in 1527. Guicciardini had a somewhat higher social standing than his friend, but through their letters, a relaxed, comfortable relationship between the two emerges. "Aware of their difference in class, Machiavelli nevertheless

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1892-446: Is the most significant industry in central Florence. From April to October, tourists outnumber the local population. Tickets to the Uffizi and Accademia galleries are regularly sold out and large groups regularly fill the basilicas of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella , both of which charge for entry. Tickets for The Uffizi and Accademia can be purchased online prior to visiting. In 2010, readers of Travel + Leisure magazine ranked

1978-594: The Historic Centre of Florence a World Heritage Site in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture and monuments. The city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti , and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, Forbes ranked it as one of

2064-705: The Italian Social Republic . Hitler declared it an open city on 3 July 1944 as troops of the British 8th Army closed in. Except for the Ponte Vecchio , in early August, the retreating Germans decided to demolish all the bridges along the Arno linking the district of Oltrarno to the rest of the city, making it difficult for troops of the 8th Army to cross. Florence was liberated by New Zealand , South African and British troops on 4 August 1944 alongside partisans from

2150-552: The Italian language . Thanks especially to the works of the Tuscans Dante , Petrarch and Boccaccio , the Florentine dialect, above all the local dialects, was adopted as the basis for a national literary language. Starting from the late Middle Ages , Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin —financed the development of industry all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges , to Lyon and Hungary . Florentine bankers financed

2236-458: The League of Cognac in 1526, which led to war with Charles V. Later that year, as the forces of Charles V threatened to attack, Clement made Guicciardini lieutenant-general of the papal army. Guicciardini was powerless to influence the commander of papal forces, Francesco Maria I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino , to take action. In April 1527, Guicciardini succeeded in averting an attack on Florence from

2322-743: The Memorie di famiglia , a family memoir of the Guicciardini family, the Storie Fiorentine ( Tales of Florence ), and began his Ricordi , a collection of personal maxims and reflections. Having distinguished himself in the practice of law, Guicciardini was entrusted by the Florentine Signoria with an embassy to the court of the King of Aragon , Ferdinand the Catholic , in 1512. He had doubts about accepting

2408-468: The Storia d'Italia . He died in 1540 without male heirs. His nephew, Lodovico Guicciardini , was also a historian known for his 16th-century works on the Low Countries . None of Francesco Guicciardini's works was published during his lifetime. It was not until 1561 that the first sixteen of the twenty books of his History of Italy were published. The first English "translation" by Sir Geffray Fenton

2494-685: The Tuscan Committee of National Liberation (CTLN). The Allied soldiers who died driving the Germans from Tuscany are buried in cemeteries outside the city (Americans about nine kilometres or 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles south of the city, British and Commonwealth soldiers a few kilometres east of the centre on the right bank of the Arno). At the end of World War II in May 1945, the US Army's Information and Educational Branch

2580-495: The urban area of Florence. The Metropolitan Area of Florence, Prato and Pistoia , constituted in 2000 over an area of roughly 4,800 square kilometres (1,850 sq mi), is home to 1.5 million people. Within Florence proper, 46.8% of the population was male in 2007 and 53.2% were female. Minors (children aged 18 and less) totalled 14.10% of the population compared to pensioners, who numbered 25.95 percent. This compares with

2666-731: The 'Third Italy' in the 1990s, due to the exports of high-quality goods and automobile (especially the Vespa ) and the prosperity and productivity of the Florentine entrepreneurs. Some of these industries even rivalled the traditional industrial districts in Emilia-Romagna and Veneto due to high profits and productivity. In the fourth quarter of 2015, manufacturing increased by 2.4% and exports increased by 7.2%. Leading sectors included mechanical engineering, fashion, pharmaceutics, food and wine. During 2015, permanent employment contracts increased by 48.8 percent, boosted by nationwide tax break. Tourism

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2752-477: The 6th century and Florence was in turn conquered by Charlemagne in 774 becoming part of the March of Tuscany centred on Lucca . The population began to grow again and commerce prospered. Margrave Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca around 1000 AD. The Golden Age of Florentine art began around this time. In 1100, Florence was a " commune ", meaning a city-state. The city's primary resource

2838-470: The Catholic Church, (Leo X and Clement VII, respectively). Both were generous patrons of the arts, commissioning works like Michelangelo 's Laurentian Library and Medici Chapel in Florence, to name just two. Their reigns coincided with political upheaval in Italy, and thus in 1527, Florentines drove out the Medici for a second time and re-established a theocratic republic on 16 May 1527, (Jesus Christ

2924-527: The English kings during the Hundred Years' War . They similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European history's most important noble families. Lorenzo de' Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in

3010-559: The Florentine citizens for their resistance to the Medici, and he dealt out justice mercilessly to those who had opposed the will of the Pope. Benedetto Varchi claimed that in carrying out his task, "Messer Francesco Guicciardini was more cruel and more ferocious than the others". In 1531, Guicciardini was assigned the governorship of Bologna , the most important city in the northern Papal States by Clement VII. Guicciardini resigned after Clement's death in 1534 and returned to Florence, where he

3096-653: The French (1521)." In 1523, Guicciardini was appointed viceregent of the Romagna by Clement VII (1478–1534). These high offices rendered Guicciardini the virtual master of the Papal States beyond the Apennine Mountains . As he later described himself during this period: "If you had seen messer Francesco in the Romagna...with his house full of tapestries, silver, servants thronged from the entire province where—since everything

3182-484: The Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Florence resident is 49 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Florence grew by 3.22 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The birth rate of Florence is 7.66 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2009 , 87.46% of

3268-547: The Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz , who was exiled to Paris, and finally an equestrian statue of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette by Paul Wayland Bartlett (1908), which was moved here when the space in front of the Louvre was remodeled. The Cours-la-Reine is the setting for the first scene of Act III of Jules Massenet 's Manon . 40 Cours-la-Reine was the home and workshop of Rene Lalique from 1902 until his death in 1945 at

3354-537: The U.S. In 2014, the city had 8.5 million overnight stays. A Euromonitor report indicates that in 2015 the city ranked as the world's 36th most visited in the world, with over 4.95 million arrivals for the year. Tourism brings revenue to Florence, but also creates certain problems. The Ponte Vecchio, The San Lorenzo Market and Santa Maria Novella are plagued by pickpockets. The province of Florence receives roughly 13 million visitors per year and in peak seasons, popular locations may become overcrowded as

3440-605: The Universities of Ferrara and Padua , where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, who had occupied the Diocese of Cortona , induced the young Guicciardini to seek an ecclesiastical career. His father, however, "thought the affairs of the Church were decadent. He preferred to lose great present profits and the chance of making one of his sons a great man rather than have it on his conscience that he had made one of his sons

3526-506: The age of 85 48°51′53″N 2°18′52″E  /  48.86472°N 2.31444°E  / 48.86472; 2.31444 Florence Florence ( / ˈ f l ɒr ən s / FLORR -ənss ; Italian : Firenze [fiˈrɛntse] ) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany . It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 364,073 inhabitants in 2024, and 990,527 in its metropolitan area . Florence

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3612-489: The calculated gestures of Ferdinand and referred to him as a model of the art of political deceit. During his time in Spain, the Medici regained power in Florence. Under the new regime, his embassy in Spain dragged on, frustrating Guicciardini as he yearned to return to Florence and participate in its political life. Guicciardini insisted on being recalled and even sent a letter to the youthful Lorenzo de’ Medici in an attempt to secure

3698-419: The centre, damaging many art treasures. Around the city there are tiny placards on the walls noting where the flood waters reached at their highest point. Florence lies in a basin formed by the hills of Careggi , Fiesole , Settignano , Arcetri , Poggio Imperiale and Bellosguardo (Florence). The Arno river , three other minor rivers (Mugnone, Ema and Greve) and some streams flow through it. Florence has

3784-429: The city as their third favourite tourist destination. In 2015, Condé Nast Travel readers voted Florence as the best city in Europe. Studies by Euromonitor International have concluded that cultural and history-oriented tourism is generating significantly increased spending throughout Europe. Florence is believed to have the greatest concentration of art (in proportion to its size) in the world. Thus, cultural tourism

3870-508: The death of Gian Gastone de' Medici in 1737. The Kingdom of Italy , which was established in 1861, moved its capital from Turin to Florence in 1865, although the capital was moved to Rome in 1871. Florence was established by the Romans in 59 BC as a colony for veteran soldiers and was built in the style of an army camp . Situated along the Via Cassia , the main route between Rome and

3956-508: The eclipse of Florence's formerly powerful rival Pisa . The growing power of the merchant elite culminated in an anti-aristocratic uprising, led by Giano della Bella , resulting in the Ordinances of Justice which entrenched the power of the elite guilds until the end of the Republic. At the height of demographic expansion around 1325, the urban population may have been as great as 120,000, and

4042-426: The highest posts of honour in the state for many generations, as may be seen in his own genealogical Ricordi autobiografici e di famiglia . Piero Guicciardini had studied with the philosopher Marsilio Ficino , who stood as his son's godfather. Like his father, Francesco received a fine humanist education and studied the classics, learning both Latin and a little Greek. The boy was sent by his father to study law at

4128-484: The late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century: Leo X and Clement VII . Catherine de' Medici married King Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de' Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future King Louis XIII . The Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany , starting with Cosimo I de' Medici in 1569 and ending with

4214-457: The love and reverence of all, and can be withheld by the people at their pleasure. Indeed, without such supports, republics can hardly last." Shortly after the Sack of Rome, Guicciardini returned to Florence, but by 1527, the Medici had been expelled from the city, and a republic had been re-established by the extreme anti-Medici Arrabiati faction. Because of his close ties to the Medici, Guicciardini

4300-463: The lowest was −23.2 °C (−9.8 °F) on 12 January 1985. In 1200 the city was home to 50,000 people. By 1300 the population of the city proper was 120,000, with an additional 300,000 living in the Contado . Between 1500 and 1650 the population was around 70,000. As of 31 October 2010 , the population of the city proper is 370,702, while Eurostat estimates that 696,767 people live in

4386-560: The middle. It became a popular meeting place for the nobility, where young aristocrats looked for husbands and wives of equal rank. The garden was rebuilt in 1723, and the banks of the river were walled in 1769. Along with the Avenue des Champs-Élysėes, it formed one of the paths radiating out of the Place de la Concorde, like the three alleys radiating from the Palace of Versailles . After World War I ,

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4472-794: The more recently developed Supertuscan blends. Within 32 km (20 mi) to the west is the Carmignano area, also home to flavourful sangiovese-based reds. The celebrated Chianti Rufina district, geographically and historically separated from the main Chianti region, is also few kilometres east of Florence. More recently, the Bolgheri region (about 150 km or 93 mi southwest of Florence) has become celebrated for its " Super Tuscan " reds such as Sassicaia and Ornellaia . Francesco Guicciardini Francesco Guicciardini ( Italian: [franˈtʃesko ɡwittʃarˈdiːni] ; 6 March 1483 – 22 May 1540)

4558-1441: The most beautiful cities in the world in 2010. Florence plays an important role in Italian fashion , and is ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world by Global Language Monitor ; furthermore, it is a major national economic centre, as well as a tourist and industrial hub. Firenze comes from Florentiae , locative form of Florentia , in turn a name conveying good luck, from Latin : florēre , lit.   'to blossom'.   Roman Republic , 59–27 BC   Roman Empire , 27 BC–AD 285   Western Roman Empire , 285–476   Kingdom of Odoacer , 476–493   Ostrogothic Kingdom , 493–553   Eastern Roman Empire , 553–568   Lombard Kingdom , 570–773   Carolingian Empire , 774–797   Regnum Italiae , 797–1001   March of Tuscany , 1002–1115 [REDACTED] Republic of Florence , 1115–1532 [REDACTED] Duchy of Florence , 1532–1569 [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Tuscany , 1569–1801 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Etruria , 1801–1807 [REDACTED] First French Empire , 1807–1815 [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Tuscany , 1815–1859 [REDACTED] United Provinces of Central Italy , 1859–1860 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Italy , 1861–1943 [REDACTED]   Italian Social Republic , 1943–1945 [REDACTED]   Italy , 1946–present Florence originated as

4644-441: The motive power of the huge clockwork of events may be traced down the mainspring of individual behavior. Not any individual, be it noted, but those in positions of command: emperors, princes and popes who may be counted on to act always in terms of their self-interest—the famous Guicciardinian particolare." Inn the following excerpt, the historian records his observations on the character of Pope Clement VII : "And although he had

4730-522: The north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno , the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre and in AD 285 became the capital of the Tuscia region. In centuries to come, the city experienced turbulent alternate periods of Ostrogoth and Byzantine rule, during which the city was fought over, helping to cause the population to fall to as low as 1,000 people. Peace returned under Lombard rule in

4816-426: The number of visitors had increased by 5.5% from the previous year. In 2013, Florence was listed as the second best world city by Condé Nast Traveler . Manufacturing and commerce remain highly important. Florence is Italy's 17th richest city in terms of average workers' earnings, with the figure being €23,265 (the overall city's income is €6,531,204,473), coming after Mantua , yet surpassing Bolzano . Florence

4902-915: The park was divided into two, and the part between Place du Canada and Place d'Alma was renamed Cours Albert Premier, after the King of the Belgians , France's staunch ally during the War. In 1947 it was used, along with the Grand Palais , to host the 1947 International Exhibition on Urbanism and Housing . The Cours la Reine is 6,800 square meters in area, and the Cours Albert Premier occupies 4950 square meters. They are currently planted with long rows of chestnut trees. The park contains several statues. One of King Albert I on horseback by Armand Matial (1938) and another of Simon Bolivar , as well as one by Antoine Bourdelle of

4988-502: The population belonging to the Archdiocese of Florence . As of 2016, an estimated 30,000 people, or 8% of the population, identified as Muslim. Foreign-born population (31.12.2019) Tourism is, by far, the most important of all industries and most of the Florentine economy relies on the money generated by international arrivals and students studying in the city. The value tourism to the city totalled some €2.5 billion in 2015 and

5074-457: The population was Italian. An estimated 6,000 Chinese live in the city. The largest immigrant group came from other European countries (mostly Romanians and Albanians ): 3.52%, East Asia (mostly Chinese and Filipino ): 2.17%, the Americas: 1.41%, and North Africa (mostly Moroccan ): 0.9%. Much like the rest of Italy most of the people in Florence are Roman Catholic , with more than 90% of

5160-565: The position I have enjoyed with several popes has forced me to love their greatness for my own self-interest. If it weren't for this consideration, I would have loved Martin Luther as much as I love myself—not to be released from the laws taught by the Christian religion as it is normally interpreted and understood, but to see this band of ruffians reduced within their correct bounds." Like many Florentine aristocrats of his day, Guicciardini believed in

5246-406: The position because it came with so little profit and would disrupt his law practice and take him away from the city. However, Francesco's father convinced him of the court’s prestige and the honour of having been chosen at such a young age. "No one could remember at Florence that such a young man had ever been chosen for such an embassy", he wrote in his diary. Thus Guicciardini started his career as

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5332-545: The powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions. From 1865 to 1871 the city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy . The Florentine dialect forms the base of standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri , Petrarch , Giovanni Boccaccio , Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini . The city attracts millions of tourists each year, and UNESCO declared

5418-409: The present name) was significantly widened and a large triumphal arch was constructed at the west end. A museum recording the destruction stands nearby today. The country's second capital city was superseded by Rome six years later, after the withdrawal of the French troops allowed the capture of Rome . During World War II the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943–1944) being part of

5504-514: The rural population around the city was probably close to 300,000. The Black Death of 1348 reduced it by over half, about 25,000 are said to have been supported by the city's wool industry: in 1345 Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers ( ciompi ), who in 1378 rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the Revolt of the Ciompi . After their suppression, Florence came under

5590-623: The size of the French army at the gates of Pisa, he had to accept the humiliating conditions of the French king. These made the Florentines rebel, and they expelled Piero II. With his exile in 1494, the first period of Medici rule ended with the restoration of a republican government. During this period, the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola had become prior of the San Marco monastery in 1490. He

5676-427: The sway (1382–1434) of the Albizzi family, who became bitter rivals of the Medici. In the 15th century, Florence was among the largest cities in Europe, with a population of 60,000, and was considered rich and economically successful. Cosimo de' Medici was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes. Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from

5762-438: The theories which Machiavelli advanced in the Discourses was that Machiavelli put things 'too absolutely.' Guicciardini did not agree with Machiavelli's basic assumption that Rome could serve as a perfect norm." Both were innovative in their approach to history: "Machiavelli and Guicciardini are important transitional figures in the development of historical writing. The historical consciousness that becomes visible in their work

5848-437: Was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era. It is considered by many academics to have been the birthplace of the Renaissance , becoming a major artistic, cultural, commercial, political, economic and financial center. During this time, Florence rose to a position of enormous influence in Italy, Europe, and beyond. Its turbulent political history includes periods of rule by

5934-424: Was an Italian historian and statesman . A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli , he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance . In his masterpiece, The History of Italy , Guicciardini paved the way for a new style in historiography with his use of government sources to support arguments and the realistic analysis of the people and events of his time. Francesco Guicciardini

6020-487: Was an accomplished poet and musician and brought composers and singers to Florence, including Alexander Agricola , Johannes Ghiselin , and Heinrich Isaac . By contemporary Florentines (and since), he was known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent" (Lorenzo il Magnifico). Following Lorenzo de' Medici's death in 1492, he was succeeded by his son Piero II . When the French king Charles VIII invaded northern Italy , Piero II chose to resist his army. But when he realised

6106-400: Was born on 6 March 1483 in the Italian city of Florence , which was part of the Florentine Republic . He was the third of 11 children of Piero di Iacopo Guicciardini and Simona di Bongianni Gianfigliazzi. The Guicciardini were well-established members of the Florentine oligarchy as well as supporters of the Medici family . Influential in Florentine politics, Guicciardini's ancestors had held

6192-424: Was completely referred to him—no one, from the Pope down, recognized anyone as his superior...". The political turmoil in Italy was continuously intensifying. As hostilities between King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , escalated, the Pope remained undecided over which side to back and so sought Guicciardini's advice. Guicciardini advised an alliance with France and urged Clement to conclude

6278-467: Was enlisted as advisor to Alessandro de' Medici , "whose position as duke had become less secure following the death of the pope". Guiccardini defended him in Naples in 1535 before Charles V , contesting the exiled rebels' accusations of tyranny. He assisted in successfully negotiating the marriage of Alessandro to the emperor Charles V’s daughter Margaret of Parma in 1536, and for a short time Gucciardini

6364-494: Was excommunicated. The Florentines, tired of his teachings, turned against him and arrested him. He was convicted as a heretic, hanged and burned on the Piazza della Signoria on 23 May 1498. His ashes were dispersed in the Arno river. Another Florentine of this period was Niccolò Machiavelli , whose prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as

6450-449: Was famed for his penitential sermons, lambasting what he viewed as widespread immorality and attachment to material riches. He praised the exile of the Medici as the work of God, punishing them for their decadence. He seized the opportunity to carry through political reforms leading to a more democratic rule. But when Savonarola publicly accused Pope Alexander VI of corruption, he was banned from speaking in public. When he broke this ban, he

6536-463: Was held suspect in his native city. In March 1530, as a result of his service to the Medici, Guicciardini was declared a rebel and had his property confiscated. This final Florentine Republic did not last long, however, and after enduring the Siege of Florence by imperial troops for nine months, in 1530 the city capitulated. Under the command of Clement VII, Guicciardini was assigned the task of punishing

6622-514: Was named Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569; in all Tuscany, only the Republic of Lucca (later a Duchy ) and the Principality of Piombino were independent from Florence. The extinction of the Medici dynasty and the accession in 1737 of Francis Stephen , duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria , led to Tuscany's temporary inclusion in the territories of the Austrian crown. It became

6708-509: Was named King of Florence). The Medici returned to power in Florence in 1530, with the armies of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the blessings of Pope Clement VII (Giulio de' Medici). Florence officially became a monarchy in 1531, when Emperor Charles and Pope Clement named Alessandro de' Medici as Duke of the Florentine Republic . The Medici's monarchy would last over two centuries. Alessandro's successor, Cosimo I de' Medici ,

6794-404: Was not intimidated by Guicciardini's offices... or by his aristocratic connections. The two established their rapport because of mutual regard for each other's intellect." They discussed personal matters and political ideas and influenced each other's work. Guicciardini was critical of some of the ideas expressed by Machiavelli in his Discourses on Livy : "Guicciardini's principal objection to

6880-506: Was ordered to establish an overseas university campus for demobilised American service men and women in Florence. The first American university for service personnel was established in June 1945 at the School of Aeronautics. Some 7,500 soldier-students were to pass through the university during its four one-month sessions (see G. I. American Universities ). In November 1966, the Arno flooded parts of

6966-507: Was published in 1579. Until 1857, only the History and a small number of extracts from his aphorisms were known. In that year, his descendants opened the Guicciardini family archives and committed to Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his memoirs in ten volumes. These are some of his works recovered from the archives: Taken in combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the Opere inedite offer

7052-593: Was restored on the throne of Tuscany at the Congress of Vienna but finally deposed in 1859. Tuscany became a region of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in 1865 and, in an effort to modernise the city, the old market in the Piazza del Mercato Vecchio and many medieval houses were pulled down and replaced by a more formal street plan with newer houses. The Piazza (first renamed Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II , then Piazza della Repubblica ,

7138-485: Was the Arno river , providing power and access for the industry (mainly textile industry), and access to the Mediterranean sea for international trade, helping the growth of an industrious merchant community. The Florentine merchant banking skills became recognised in Europe after they brought decisive financial innovation (e.g. bills of exchange , double-entry bookkeeping system ) to medieval fairs. This period also saw

7224-473: Was the beginning of a long career for Guicciardini in papal administration, first under Leo X and then under his successor, Clement VII . "He governed Modena and Reggio with conspicuous success" according to The Catholic Encyclopedia . He was appointed to govern Parma , and according to the Encyclopedia , "in the confusion that followed the pope's death, he distinguished himself by his defence of Parma against

7310-506: Was the most trusted advisor to Alessandro until the Duke's assassination in 1537. Then, Guicciardini allied himself with Cosimo de' Medici , who was just 17 and new to the Florentine political system. Guicciardini supported Cosimo as duke of Florence; nevertheless, Cosimo dismissed him shortly after rising to power. Guicciardini retired to his villa in Arcetri , where he spent his last years working on

7396-402: Was the one work which he wrote not for himself, but for the public." In his research, Guicciardini drew upon material that he gathered from government records as well as from his own extensive experience in politics. His many personal encounters with powerful Italian rulers serves to explain his perspective as a historian: "Francesco Guicciardini might be called a psychological historian—for him

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